NODE / 1095reconstructedProto-Indo-European

*ḱh₂d-es-

TRANSLITERATION *ḱh₂d-es-

a proposed formation connecting grief, pain, care, mourning, and hatred words

DATE: proposed Proto-Indo-European formation
SENSE: grief pain hatred formation
FAMILY: Indo-European
CANONICAL KEY: node:6:kh2d-es:reconstructed:sense:grief-pain-hatred-formation

Merriam-Webster calls this only a possible source of Germanic *hatiz-. The semantic relationship among the proposed cognates is explicitly far from transparent.

This form is reconstructed by comparison. It is not directly attested in this exact written form.

ANCESTRAL EDGES

ROOT OF THIS ROOT

GO DEEPERderivationprobable

Proto-Indo-European · proposed Proto-Indo-European base · grief pain hatred base

*ḱeh₂d-

a proposed base glossed with grief, pain, and hatred

SOUND: The proposed zero-grade or reduced root formation *ḱh₂d-es- is analyzed from the full-grade base *ḱeh₂d- with suffixation.
MEANING: The source groups grief, pain, care, mourning, and hatred meanings, but no single original semantic path is promoted.
CHRONOLOGY: Two analytical reconstructed levels, not independently attested spoken tokens.
SCHOLAR: Merriam-Webster Editors
CONFIDENCE: probable — The formal analysis is published, while the semantic unity remains expressly difficult.

Hate — definition, etymology, and first known usesupportsNoun etymology: *ḱh₂d-es- from base *ḱeh₂d-

Publishes the proposed formation and base.

ORIGINAL ↗

Celto-Germanic — HATRED *kad-contextp. 101, reconstructed Indo-European analysis

Provides a wider comparative treatment.

ORIGINAL ↗

OPEN CANONICAL EDGE 1089 ↗

DIRECT DESCENDANT EDGES

THE NEXT HISTORICAL STEP

DESCENDANTcomparative derivationprobable

Proto-Germanic · Proto-Germanic · hate anger germanic i stem

*hatiz-

hate, anger, enmity, spite, or hostility

SOUND: Under the proposed comparison, Grimm’s Law maps Indo-European *ḱ to Germanic h and *d to Germanic t, while the suffixal formation is remodeled as the Germanic i-stem.
MEANING: A proposed grief, pain, care, or hatred formation narrows or develops into the Germanic hate and enmity family.
CHRONOLOGY: Proto-Indo-European proposal to Proto-Germanic reconstruction.
SCHOLAR: Merriam-Webster Editors · Anatoly Liberman
CONFIDENCE: probable — Merriam-Webster says “perhaps” and calls the semantic relations far from transparent; Liberman argues that several proposed non-Germanic cognates may not belong together.

Hate — definition, etymology, and first known usesupportsNoun etymology and note on proposed *ḱh₂d-es-

Publishes the formal proposal while flagging semantic opacity.

ORIGINAL ↗

The shortest history of hatred continued and partly concludedchallengesDiscussion of proposed non-Germanic cognates and the murky semantic comparison

Warns that phonetic candidates need not all belong together.

ORIGINAL ↗

Celto-Germanic — HATRED *kad-contextp. 101, Proto-Indo-European root and Germanic, Celtic, Italic, Iranian, and Greek comparisons

Publishes a wider affirmative comparison that remains visibly qualified by competing scholarship.

ORIGINAL ↗

Indo-European Lexicon — k̑ād- : k̑ədes- : k̑əd-s- and its reflexescontextPokorny etymon k̑ād- : k̑ədes- : k̑əd-s- and reflex table

Publishes an additional inherited comparison while labeling the database under active construction.

ORIGINAL ↗

OPEN CANONICAL EDGE 1088 ↗

DESCENDANTproposed inheritanceproposed

Ancient Greek · Homeric and later Ancient Greek · care grief mourning affinity neuter noun

κῆδος

care, concern, anxiety, grief, trouble, mourning, funeral rites, object of care, or connection by marriage

SOUND: Under the proposed comparison, the palatal stop is represented by Greek k, while the long-vowel pattern appears as Ionic-Attic η beside Doric ā in κᾶδος. The exact Proto-Hellenic sequence and every laryngeal or suffixal step are reconstructed rather than attested.
MEANING: The Greek care, anxiety, grief, mourning, and funeral field is compared with a wider formation that also contains hostility and hatred words. The edge does not make every branch sense descend from one recoverable emotional scene.
CHRONOLOGY: Proposed Indo-European formation into the attested Greek record.
SCHOLAR: Merriam-Webster Editors · John T. Koch · Linguistics Research Center editors
CONFIDENCE: proposed — The formal comparison is published across multiple sources, but Merriam-Webster calls the semantic relations far from transparent and Liberman challenges the wider family's unity.

Hate — definition, etymology, and first known usesupportsNoun etymology: Greek kêdos beside the proposed *ḱh₂d-es- formation

Publishes the Greek comparison while calling the semantic relations far from transparent.

ORIGINAL ↗

The shortest history of hatred continued and partly concludedchallengesDiscussion of Greek and Celtic comparison candidates

Warns that the proposed non-Germanic forms do not automatically establish one semantic family.

ORIGINAL ↗

Celto-Germanic — HATRED *kad-supportsp. 101, wider Celto-Germanic HATRED comparison including Greek κῆδος

Provides a broader affirmative comparative analysis.

ORIGINAL ↗

Indo-European Lexicon — k̑ād- : k̑ədes- : k̑əd-s- and its reflexescontextGreek κῆδος row under k̑ād- : k̑ədes- : k̑əd-s-

Places the exact Greek noun in the published reflex table with care, grief, and sorrow glosses.

ORIGINAL ↗

Liddell–Scott–Jones Greek-English Lexicon — κῆδοςcontextHeadword, Doric κᾶδος, senses, and citations

Supplies the attested Greek form, dialect variant, and full semantic range independently of the deep comparison.

ORIGINAL ↗

OPEN CANONICAL EDGE 1268 ↗

TRANSITIVE DESCENDANT CLOSURE

EVERY REVIEWED BRANCH FROM HERE

This is the complete downstream closure currently supported by the canonical graph. Every displayed step is a real reviewed edge with its own sound claim, meaning claim, scholar, confidence, and citations.

UNIQUE DESCENDANT NODES: 41
REVIEWED EDGES: 43
DEEPEST PATH: 6
MODERN DOSSIERS REACHED: 21

HISTORICAL STEP 012 EDGES

STEP 01comparative derivationprobable

Proto-Indo-European*ḱh₂d-es-→Proto-Germanic · Proto-Germanic*hatiz-hate, anger, enmity, spite, or hostility

SOUND: Under the proposed comparison, Grimm’s Law maps Indo-European *ḱ to Germanic h and *d to Germanic t, while the suffixal formation is remodeled as the Germanic i-stem.
MEANING: A proposed grief, pain, care, or hatred formation narrows or develops into the Germanic hate and enmity family.

Merriam-Webster Editors · Anatoly Liberman4 CITATIONSEDGE 1088 ↗

Hate — definition, etymology, and first known use · Noun etymology and note on proposed *ḱh₂d-es- ↗The shortest history of hatred continued and partly concluded · Discussion of proposed non-Germanic cognates and the murky semantic comparison ↗Celto-Germanic — HATRED *kad- · p. 101, Proto-Indo-European root and Germanic, Celtic, Italic, Iranian, and Greek comparisons ↗Indo-European Lexicon — k̑ād- : k̑ədes- : k̑əd-s- and its reflexes · Pokorny etymon k̑ād- : k̑ədes- : k̑əd-s- and reflex table ↗

STEP 01proposed inheritanceproposed

Proto-Indo-European*ḱh₂d-es-→Ancient Greek · Homeric and later Ancient Greekκῆδοςcare, concern, anxiety, grief, trouble, mourning, funeral rites, object of care, or connection by marriage

SOUND: Under the proposed comparison, the palatal stop is represented by Greek k, while the long-vowel pattern appears as Ionic-Attic η beside Doric ā in κᾶδος. The exact Proto-Hellenic sequence and every laryngeal or suffixal step are reconstructed rather than attested.
MEANING: The Greek care, anxiety, grief, mourning, and funeral field is compared with a wider formation that also contains hostility and hatred words. The edge does not make every branch sense descend from one recoverable emotional scene.

Merriam-Webster Editors · John T. Koch · Linguistics Research Center editors5 CITATIONSEDGE 1268 ↗

Hate — definition, etymology, and first known use · Noun etymology: Greek kêdos beside the proposed *ḱh₂d-es- formation ↗The shortest history of hatred continued and partly concluded · Discussion of Greek and Celtic comparison candidates ↗Celto-Germanic — HATRED *kad- · p. 101, wider Celto-Germanic HATRED comparison including Greek κῆδος ↗Indo-European Lexicon — k̑ād- : k̑ədes- : k̑əd-s- and its reflexes · Greek κῆδος row under k̑ād- : k̑ədes- : k̑əd-s- ↗Liddell–Scott–Jones Greek-English Lexicon — κῆδος · Headword, Doric κᾶδος, senses, and citations ↗

HISTORICAL STEP 0211 EDGES

STEP 02inheritanceestablished

Proto-Germanic*hatiz-→Old English · Old Englishhetehate, hatred, spite, envy, malice, hostility, or anger

SOUND: The Germanic i-stem *hatiz- yields Old English hete; the exact intermediate West Germanic paradigm is not independently promoted here.
MEANING: The Germanic hate, anger, enmity, and spite field continues in the Old English noun.

Merriam-Webster Editors · Anatoly Liberman4 CITATIONSEDGE 1087 ↗

Hate — definition, etymology, and first known use · Noun etymology: Germanic *hatiz- and Old English hete ↗The shortest history of hatred continued and partly concluded · Germanic cognate paragraph: Old English hete, Old High German haz, Old Saxon heti, Old Icelandic hatr ↗HETE — An Anglo-Saxon Dictionary Online · HETE entry, etymology section ↗A Concise Anglo-Saxon Dictionary — hete and related entries · Lines 2968–2985, hete and compounds ↗

STEP 02derivationestablished

Proto-Germanic*hatiz-→Proto-Germanic · Proto-Germanic*hatōjan-to hate or treat with enmity

SOUND: The Germanic weak verb *hatōjan- is derived from the base of the hate noun *hatiz-.
MEANING: A noun for hate or enmity supplies the related verb to hate or treat as an enemy.

Merriam-Webster Editors2 CITATIONSEDGE 1096 ↗

Hate — definition, etymology, and first known use · Verb etymology: derivative from the base of *hatiz- ↗A Handbook of Germanic Etymology — *xataz, *xatjanan, and *xatōjanan · p. 203, *xataz and *xatēnan ~ *xatōjanan ↗

STEP 02derivationprobable

Proto-Germanic*hatiz-→Proto-Germanic · Proto-Germanic*xatjanana reconstructed Germanic weak verb represented by Gothic hatjan, Old English hettan, and Middle High German hetzen

SOUND: Orel derives *xatjanan from the Germanic hate-noun base he writes *xataz ~ *xatez; the graph crosswalks that base to its already reviewed *hatiz- representation.
MEANING: A noun for hate or enmity supplies a weak verb whose attested relatives range from hate to pursuit.

Vladimir Orel · Merriam-Webster Editors4 CITATIONSEDGE 1115 ↗

Hate — definition, etymology, and first known use · Noun etymology: Germanic *hatiz- ↗A Handbook of Germanic Etymology — *xataz, *xatjanan, and *xatōjanan · p. 203, *xatjanan derived from *xataz ~ *xatez ↗hetzen — Rechtschreibung, Bedeutung, Definition, Herkunft · Herkunft ↗An Etymological Dictionary of the German Language — hetzen · p. 146, hetzen; compare Haß ↗

STEP 02inheritanceprobable

Proto-Germanic*hatiz-→Gothic · Gothic textual traditionhatishatred, anger, or wrath

SOUND: Proto-Germanic *hatiz- is represented by Gothic hatis word-finally and by the stem hatiz- before a vowel-initial ending, visible in hatiza. Gothic then regularizes the inherited i-stem into neuter a-stem inflection.
MEANING: The inherited anger or hostility noun becomes the Gothic translation choice for Greek wrath vocabulary. That contextual specialization does not prove the noun lacked hatred senses elsewhere.

R. D. Fulk · John T. Koch · Project Wulfila editors4 CITATIONSEDGE 1132 ↗

Lemma hatis — Gothic dictionary and fifteen-token occurrence inventory · Lemma hatis, neuter a-stem classification and fifteen-token occurrence inventory ↗Die gotische Bibel — Wörterbuch entry hatis · p. 55, hatis (z), full case-and-context inventory ↗A Comparative Grammar of the Early Germanic Languages — Gothic hatis · p. 80, §5.2: hatis transferred to the a-stems; compare i-stem Old English hete and Old Saxon heti ↗Celto-Germanic — HATRED *kad- · p. 101, HATRED *kad-: Proto-Germanic *hataz ~ *hatiz- and Gothic hatis ↗

STEP 02derivationprobable

Proto-Germanic*hatiz-→Proto-Germanic · Proto-Germanic reconstruction alternatives*xatēnan ~ *xatōjananreconstructed class-III or related weak verbs meaning hate

SOUND: Orel groups the weak-verb reconstruction with the Germanic hate-noun base he represents as *xataz ~ *xatez; the graph crosswalks that base to its reviewed *hatiz- node.
MEANING: A noun family for hate or enmity supplies or associates with weak verbs whose daughter branches express hating, hostility, pursuit, and anger.

Vladimir Orel · Merriam-Webster Editors3 CITATIONSEDGE 1137 ↗

Hate — definition, etymology, and first known use · Noun etymology: Germanic *hatiz- and derived weak verb ↗A Handbook of Germanic Etymology — *xataz, *xatjanan, and *xatōjanan · p. 203, *xataz ~ *xatez beside *xatēnan ~ *xatōjanan ↗Altsächsisches Wörterbuch — hatōn and hėttiand · hatōn entry: related Old Saxon heti and Germanic analysis ↗

STEP 02inheritanceprobable

Proto-Germanic*hatiz-→Old High German · Old High German, reported from the eighth centuryhaʒhostile disposition, resentment, enmity, suffering, or sorrow

SOUND: Under the comparative analysis, Germanic t develops into the Old High German sibilant written ʒ through the High German consonant shift, while i-stem morphology and gender are remodeled in the High German branch.
MEANING: The inherited hate, anger, enmity, or hostility field continues as Old High German haʒ; competing sources disagree on whether pursuit, suffering, or hostile disposition best represents the earlier semantic center.

Wolfgang Pfeifer · Jacob Grimm · John T. Koch4 CITATIONSEDGE 1176 ↗

Hate — definition, etymology, and first known use · Noun etymology: Germanic *hatiz- and branch forms ↗Celto-Germanic — HATRED *kad- · p. 101, Proto-Germanic *hataz ~ *hatiz- and Old High German haz ↗DWDS — Hass, etymology after Wolfgang Pfeifer · Pfeifer etymology: cross-Germanic old es/os stem ↗Deutsches Wörterbuch von Jacob Grimm und Wilhelm Grimm — hasz, m. · hasz, m., opening comparative paragraph ↗

STEP 02inheritanceprobable

Proto-Germanic*hatiz-→Old Norse · Old Norse textual recordhatrhatred, enmity, spite; perhaps mockery or scorn in one uncertain context

SOUND: The comparative analysis aligns Old Norse hatr and genitive hatrs with the Germanic *hatiz- noun after North Germanic loss or reduction of unstressed material and branch-specific inflection. The public sources establish the comparison more securely than one fully specified sound-law derivation.
MEANING: The inherited hate, anger, enmity, or spite field continues in Old Norse hatred, enmity, and spite. One proposed mockery or scorn context remains a qualified side sense rather than the ancestral center.

Dictionary of Old Norse Prose editors · Richard Cleasby · Guðbrandur Vigfússon · John T. Koch4 CITATIONSEDGE 1180 ↗

Celto-Germanic — HATRED *kad- · p. 101, Proto-Germanic *hataz ~ *hatiz- and Old Norse hatr ↗DWDS — Hass, etymology after Wolfgang Pfeifer · Pfeifer etymology: Old Norse hatr in the cross-Germanic noun family ↗Dictionary of Old Norse Prose — ²hatr, neuter noun · ²hatr sb. n. [hatrs; -], 54 citations, primary sense hatred, enmity, spite ↗An Icelandic-English Dictionary — hatr · Entry hatr, n.; comparison with Gothic hatis, Old English hete, German Hass, Danish had, and Swedish hat ↗

STEP 02inheritanceprobable

Proto-Germanic*hatiz-→Old Saxon · Old Saxon Heliand, Genesis, and Saxon Confession recordhetihate, hostility, enmity, or persecution

SOUND: Old Saxon heti is directly compared with the reconstructed Germanic noun represented here as *hatiz-. The inherited h-t frame and i-stem comparison are published; no unattested West Germanic intermediate or falsely precise sound-change date is inserted.
MEANING: The Germanic hate, anger, enmity, and hostility field continues in an Old Saxon noun whose located contexts include endured persecution or hostile speech and confessed hostility. No one daughter context is promoted as the original meaning.

R. D. Fulk · Gerhard Köbler · Wolfgang Pfeifer · Linguistics Research Center editors5 CITATIONSEDGE 1259 ↗

A Comparative Grammar of the Early Germanic Languages — Gothic hatis · p. 80, §5.2: Gothic hatis transferred to the a-stems; compare i-stem Old English hete and Old Saxon heti ↗DWDS — Hass, etymology after Wolfgang Pfeifer · Pfeifer etymology: Old Saxon heti and the wider noun as an old es/os-stem ↗Altsächsisches Wörterbuch — hatōn and hėttiand · hėti* entry: st. M. (i); Germanic *hati-, *hatiz; complete B field ↗Old Saxon Reflex Index — hatan, hatōn, heti, and hōti under k̑ād- · Old Saxon reflex row heti mapped to k̑ād- ↗Indo-European Lexicon — k̑ād- : k̑ədes- : k̑əd-s- and its reflexes · Old Saxon heti and wider Germanic reflex table under k̑ād- ↗

STEP 02competing inheritanceproposed

Proto-Germanic*hatiz-→Old Saxon · Old Saxon Heliand recordhōtihostile, inimical, or enraged

SOUND: UT places Old Saxon hōti in the same reflex table as hatōn, heti, and the wider Germanic hate family. The atlas crosswalks that classification to its reviewed *hatiz- node without claiming an observed Proto-Germanic token.
MEANING: The hostile or inimical adjective is grouped with hate, displeasure, enmity, anger, and persecution. Köbler's distinct *hwōtja- analysis prevents this semantic grouping from being treated as a settled single parent.

Linguistics Research Center editors · SET-U cross-source review2 CITATIONSEDGE 1267 ↗

Altsächsisches Wörterbuch — hatōn and hėttiand · hōti* entry, separate E field *hwōtja- and *kʷē̆d- comparison ↗Indo-European Lexicon — k̑ād- : k̑ədes- : k̑əd-s- and its reflexes · Old Saxon hōti row in the k̑ād- hate-family reflex table ↗

STEP 02editorial transliterationestablished

Ancient Greekκῆδος→Ancient Greek · modern scholarly Latin-script representation of Ancient Greekkêdossource transliteration of κῆδος, not a separate Ancient Greek lexeme

SOUND: Latin-script kêdos represents Greek κῆδος through a modern scholarly transliteration convention; no historical sound event or borrowing is claimed.
MEANING: The complete Greek semantic range is unchanged because the Latin letters encode the same lexeme rather than a new sense.

Merriam-Webster Editors · Scaife ATLAS editors2 CITATIONSEDGE 1271 ↗

Hate — definition, etymology, and first known use · Noun etymology: Greek kêdos ↗Liddell–Scott–Jones Greek-English Lexicon — κῆδος · Headword κῆδος and dictionary key kh=dos ↗

STEP 02dialectal variantestablished

Ancient Greekκῆδος→Ancient Greek · Doric Ancient Greek variantκᾶδοςDoric form of κῆδος in the care, grief, mourning, and affinity family

SOUND: Doric long ā corresponds to the η of the Ionic-Attic headword representation; LSJ prints the forms together rather than as separate lexemes.
MEANING: Care, grief, mourning, and related senses remain within one lexical family across the dialectal spelling and vowel difference.

Liddell · Scott · Jones1 CITATIONEDGE 1272 ↗

Liddell–Scott–Jones Greek-English Lexicon — κῆδος · Intro text: Doric κᾶδος; Pythian 4.112 ↗

HISTORICAL STEP 0312 EDGES

STEP 03lexical continuationprobable

Old Englishhete→Middle English · Middle Englishhatehate, extreme anger, hostility, or the lexical base of hatrede

SOUND: Middle English hate stands beside inherited hete, with a remodeled a-vowel form associated with the verb haten. The graph does not pretend the noun-side replacement was a single regular sound law.
MEANING: Old English hate, hostility, and anger continue in Middle English, while the noun form is remodeled or replaced beside the inherited reflex.

Merriam-Webster Editors · American Heritage Dictionary Editors2 CITATIONSEDGE 1086 ↗

Hate — definition, etymology, and first known use · Noun etymology: probably derivative of haten, replacing hete ↗Hate — definition and etymology · Etymology: noun from Old English hete ↗

STEP 03inheritanceestablished

Proto-Germanic*hatōjan-→Old English · Old Englishhatianto hate, treat as an enemy, persecute, or in a cited context pursue

SOUND: Old English hatian continues the reconstructed Germanic weak verb *hatōjan-, with the inherited stem and reduced inflection.
MEANING: The Germanic hostile-disposition verb continues in Old English; pursuit or persecution may preserve a more concrete action sense.

Merriam-Webster Editors · Anatoly Liberman4 CITATIONSEDGE 1095 ↗

Hate — definition, etymology, and first known use · Verb etymology: Germanic *hatōjan- ↗The shortest history of hatred continued and partly concluded · Old English pursuit and Germanic verb discussion ↗HATIAN — An Anglo-Saxon Dictionary, Dictionary H · HATIAN entry, grammar and examples ↗A Handbook of Germanic Etymology — *xataz, *xatjanan, and *xatōjanan · p. 203, *xatēnan ~ *xatōjanan ↗

STEP 03inheritanceprobable

Proto-Germanic*xatjanan→Old English · Old Englishhettana lexicographic weak-verb lemma associated with hating, attacking, or persecuting

SOUND: The j-conditioned Germanic stem accounts for Old English fronting of a to e and the geminate spelling in hettan; the displayed infinitive is a normalized lemma rather than a quoted corpus token.
MEANING: The compared Germanic verb family ranges across hate, pursuit, attack, and persecution, but the priority of those senses is unresolved.

Vladimir Orel · Chr. Peeters · Marta Tío Sáenz4 CITATIONSEDGE 1114 ↗

A Concise Anglo-Saxon Dictionary — hete and related entries · hettende, present participle of hatian ↗A Handbook of Germanic Etymology — *xataz, *xatjanan, and *xatōjanan · p. 203, *xatjanan: Gothic hatjan, Old English hettan, Middle High German hetzen ↗HETTAN; HETTEND — An Anglo-Saxon Dictionary, Dictionary H · HETTAN cross-reference and HETTEND entry ↗The Lemmatisation of Old English Weak Verbs on a Relational Database · p. 255, hettan: hettende ↗

STEP 03inheritanceprobable

Proto-Germanic*xatjanan→Old High German · reconstructed Old High German bridge*hezzena reconstructed weak verb meaning chase or persecute

SOUND: The j-suffix conditions West Germanic fronting and consonant development; High German sound change and later reduction yield the projected *hezzen shape.
MEANING: A Germanic factitive or action verb associated with hostility is continued as chase, pursuit, or persecution in the High German branch.

Christopher Gordon Bailey · Vladimir Orel2 CITATIONSEDGE 1122 ↗

A Handbook of Germanic Etymology — *xataz, *xatjanan, and *xatōjanan · p. 203, *xatjanan ↗The Etymology of the Old High German Weak Verb · vol. 1, data entry “*hezzen” ↗

STEP 03inheritanceprobable

Proto-Germanic*xatjanan→Gothic · Gothic biblical traditionhatjanto hate

SOUND: The class-I -j- morphology visible in hatjandam supports the normalized infinitive hatjan and corresponds to the reconstructed *-jan- formation; Gothic h continues the Germanic fricative written x in Orel’s notation.
MEANING: The surviving Gothic clause means hate. The pursuit sense of Middle High German hetzen is a daughter-branch development and is not projected back as the only Gothic meaning.

Vladimir Orel · Wilhelm Braune · Project Wulfila editors5 CITATIONSEDGE 1127 ↗

A Handbook of Germanic Etymology — *xataz, *xatjanan, and *xatōjanan · p. 203, *xatjanan: Gothic hatjan, Old English hettan, Middle High German hetzen ↗Lemma hatjan — Gothic dictionary and occurrence inventory · Lemma hatjan, class sw.V.1-j and verified occurrence list ↗Gothic Bible word analysis — Matthew 5:44, hatjandam · Matthew 5:44, token hatjandam ↗A Gothic Grammar with Selections for Reading and a Glossary — hatan and hatjan · §193 note and glossary p. 170, hatjan ↗Grammar of the Gothic Language — glossary entries hatan, hatis, hatizōn, and hatjan · Glossary p. 326, hatan and hatjan ↗

STEP 03competing inheritanceproposed

Proto-Germanic*xatēnan ~ *xatōjanan→Gothic · Gothic biblical traditionhatanto hate; in a substantivized participle, an enemy or one who hates

SOUND: On the inherited analysis, Gothic h and the hat- stem continue the Germanic forms Orel writes with x, while the Gothic class-III paradigm is compared with the reconstructed *xatēnan ~ *xatōjanan alternation.
MEANING: The Germanic weak-verb family meaning hate continues in the two surviving Gothic participles, one of which is substantivized as enemies.

Vladimir Orel · Project Wulfila editors5 CITATIONSEDGE 1136 ↗

A Handbook of Germanic Etymology — *xataz, *xatjanan, and *xatōjanan · p. 203, *xatēnan ~ *xatōjanan and Germanic cognate verbs ↗Lemma hatan — Gothic dictionary and occurrence inventory · Lemma hatan, class sw.V.3 and two-token occurrence inventory ↗A Gothic Grammar with Selections for Reading and a Glossary — hatan and hatjan · §§191–193 and note: class-III -ai- distribution; hatan fluctuates with class-I hatjan ↗Die gotische Bibel — Wörterbuch entry hatan · Wörterbuch entry hatan sw.V.3 hassen ↗Notes on Gothic Forms — Hatan : hatjan “to hate” · p. 452, Hatan : hatjan “to hate” ↗

STEP 03historical continuationestablished

Old High Germanhaʒ→Middle High German · Middle High Germanhaʒhostility, hostile pursuit or action, anger in action, or measured rivalry

SOUND: The reviewed dictionaries print the Old and Middle High German noun as haʒ; this edge preserves two attested language periods without inventing a sound change between identical normalized forms.
MEANING: DWB says hostile disposition is exclusively attested in Old High German, while Middle High German records also expose hostile action, anger enacted, and rivalry. That is a difference in the surviving record, not proof of one instantaneous innovation.

Dudenredaktion · Wolfgang Pfeifer · Jacob Grimm3 CITATIONSEDGE 1175 ↗

Duden — Hass · Herkunft ↗DWDS — Hass, etymology after Wolfgang Pfeifer · Pfeifer etymology: eighth-century Old High German and Middle High German haʒ ↗Deutsches Wörterbuch von Jacob Grimm und Wilhelm Grimm — hasz, m. · hasz, m., historical-form paragraph and sections 1–2 ↗

STEP 03inheritanceprobable

Proto-Germanic*xatēnan ~ *xatōjanan→Old High German · Old High Germanhaʒʒēn / haʒʒōnto hate; in reported glosses, to pursue or follow hostilely

SOUND: Old High German haʒʒōn belongs to the comparative weak-verb set Orel reconstructs as *xatēnan ~ *xatōjanan; the High German branch reflects the consonant-shifted Germanic t in the doubled sibilant spelling.
MEANING: The inherited Germanic hate field continues in the Old High German verb, but pursuit, hostile action, and hostile disposition remain competing candidates for the earlier semantic center.

Vladimir Orel · Dudenredaktion · Jacob Grimm4 CITATIONSEDGE 1187 ↗

A Handbook of Germanic Etymology — *xataz, *xatjanan, and *xatōjanan · p. 203, *xatēnan ~ *xatōjanan and Old High German hazzōn ↗Duden — hassen · Herkunft: Old High German haʒʒēn and haʒʒōn ↗Deutsches Wörterbuch von Jacob Grimm und Wilhelm Grimm — hassen · Opening comparative paragraph: Gothic, Old High German, Middle High German, and wider Germanic forms ↗Proto-Germanic *xatiz, *xatōn-, -ēn- and *xatjan- · Proto-Germanic *xatōn-, -ēn- beside Old High German hazzēn and hazzōn ↗

STEP 03inheritanceprobable

Proto-Germanic*xatēnan ~ *xatōjanan→Old Norse · Old Norse prose and poetic recordhatato persecute; reject or despise; humiliate; hate; damage or destroy in poetic use; become or remain hostile in reflexive constructions

SOUND: Old Norse h continues the Germanic fricative Orel writes x, while the weak-verb stem and North Germanic inflection produce the attested hata paradigm. The reviewed sources do not expose one complete dated series of intermediate spoken forms.
MEANING: The inherited hostility verb is distributed across persecution, rejection, humiliation, hate, damage or destruction, participial, and reciprocal constructions. Dictionary sense order is not promoted as a chronological semantic path.

Vladimir Orel · Dictionary of Old Norse Prose editors · Johan Fritzner4 CITATIONSEDGE 1223 ↗

A Handbook of Germanic Etymology — *xataz, *xatjanan, and *xatōjanan · p. 203, *xatēnan ~ *xatōjanan and Old Norse hata ↗Dictionary of Old Norse Prose — hata, verb · Headword hata vb. [-að-], 101 structured prose citations ↗An Icelandic-English Dictionary — hata · Headword hata and Germanic cognate list ↗Ordbog over Det gamle norske Sprog — hata · Headword hata, senses persecute, damage or destroy, and hate ↗

STEP 03inheritanceprobable

Proto-Germanic*xatēnan ~ *xatōjanan→Old Frisian · Old Frisian legal and theological records, text 1220-1300 through manuscripts 1490-1540hatiato hate or reject; to damage; in feud-language, to harm or pursue as an enemy

SOUND: Old Frisian h corresponds to the Germanic fricative Orel writes x. The attested weak-verb forms show spelling and inflectional variation including hatia, hatijen, hatie, hata, and hatien, but the reviewed sources do not publish one complete dated series of intermediate spoken changes.
MEANING: The inherited hostility verb is used across hate or rejection, damage, feud-language enemy pursuit, road obstruction, legal adversity, and theological condemnation. No dictionary sense order is promoted as a chronological semantic path.

Vladimir Orel · Dietrich Hofmann · Anne Tjerk Popkema · Corpus Oudfries editors4 CITATIONSEDGE 1228 ↗

A Handbook of Germanic Etymology — *xataz, *xatjanan, and *xatōjanan · p. 203, *xatēnan ~ *xatōjanan and Old Frisian hatia ↗Altfriesisches Handwörterbuch — extracted entry hatia · Headword hatia, variants and senses 1-2 ↗Corpus Oudfries — About and version 1.0 · Version 1.0 corpus scope and annotation method ↗Die Brokmer Rechtshandschriften — B 101 and critical note hatia = atia · B 101 critical note: hatia = atia "rear" with prothetic h ↗

STEP 03derivationestablished

Gothichatis→Gothic · Gothic biblical traditionhatizōnto be angry with or at someone

SOUND: The consonantal stem hatiz- of hatis receives the class-II weak-verb formation represented by the citation form hatizōn and the written second-person plural hatizoþ. The long ō is an editorial phonological representation, not a separate manuscript letter.
MEANING: A noun for hatred, wrath, or anger supplies a verb whose one surviving context means be angry with or at someone. One token does not establish whether the verb ever carried the noun’s entire semantic range.

Todd B. Krause · Jonathan Slocum · Joseph Wright · Wilhelm Streitberg · Project Wulfila editors5 CITATIONSEDGE 1237 ↗

Grammar of the Gothic Language — glossary entries hatan, hatis, hatizōn, and hatjan · Glossary p. 326, hatizōn, weak verb II, “to be angry,” §325 ↗Die gotische Bibel — Wörterbuch entry hatis · p. 55, hatizōn and John 7:23 ↗Gothic Online, Lesson 8 — hatis and denominative hatizōn · Lesson 8, denominative table: hatis, stem hatiz-, hatizōn “be angry” ↗Lemma hatizon — class-II Gothic verb and one-occurrence inventory · Lemma hatizon, sw.V.2, one verified occurrence ↗Gothic Bible word analysis — John 7:23, hatizoþ · John 7:23, token hatizoþ and morphology ↗

STEP 03competing inheritanceproposed

Proto-Germanic*xatēnan ~ *xatōjanan→Old Saxon · Munich Heliand manuscript, second half of the ninth centuryhatanto hate in the quoted enemy command; wider paradigm also glossed pursue

SOUND: Old Saxon h continues the Germanic fricative represented by Orel as x, while the attested ō-class paradigm is compared with reconstructed weak-verb alternatives. Orel prints *xatēnan ~ *xatōjanan; Köbler prints *hatōn.
MEANING: The inherited Germanic hostility verb continues as Old Saxon hate or, in lexicographic description, pursue. The evidence does not establish pursuit as the one earlier or original meaning.

Vladimir Orel · Gerhard Köbler · University of Texas Linguistics Research Center3 CITATIONSEDGE 1254 ↗

A Handbook of Germanic Etymology — *xataz, *xatjanan, and *xatōjanan · p. 203, *xatēnan ~ *xatōjanan and Old Saxon hatan ↗Altsächsisches Wörterbuch — hatōn and hėttiand · hatōn entry: Germanic *hatōn and Old Saxon paradigm ↗Old Saxon Reflex Index — hatan, hatōn, heti, and hōti under k̑ād- · Old Saxon reflex rows hatan and hatōn mapped to k̑ād- ↗

HISTORICAL STEP 0410 EDGES

STEP 04compound componentestablished

Middle Englishhate→Middle English · Middle Englishhatrede / hatreden / hateredynhatred; the state or condition of hate

SOUND: The first element of Middle English hate-rede is hate. This component edge is morphological analysis, not a claim that the whole compound changed into the bare noun.
MEANING: Hate supplies the emotion or hostility whose condition the compound names.

Merriam-Webster Editors · American Heritage Dictionary Editors2 CITATIONSEDGE 1085 ↗

Hatred — definition, etymology, and first known use · Etymology: hate plus -rede ↗Hatred — definition and etymology · Bracketed etymology: hate plus -rede ↗

STEP 04inheritanceestablished

Old Englishhatian→Middle English · Middle Englishhatento hate or treat with enmity

SOUND: Middle English haten continues Old English hatian with loss of the medial unstressed vowel and inherited infinitive reduction.
MEANING: Treat as an enemy or persecute continues as hate; a pursuit sense is relevant to one deeper semantic hypothesis.

Merriam-Webster Editors · American Heritage Dictionary Editors · Anatoly Liberman3 CITATIONSEDGE 1094 ↗

Hate — definition, etymology, and first known use · Verb etymology: Middle English haten from Old English hatian ↗Hate — definition and etymology · Verb etymology ↗Beowulf: an Anglo-Saxon poem — glossary entry hatian · Glossary entry hatian, lines 2320 and 2467 in that edition’s numbering ↗

STEP 04historical continuationestablished

Middle Englishhate→Present-Day English · before the 12th century–todayhateas a noun, intense hostility, aversion, or an object of hostility; as a verb, feel enmity or strong aversion

SOUND: Middle English hate continues into modern /heɪt/ through the Great Vowel Shift and regular loss of final inflectional material; noun and verb converge in one spelling.
MEANING: The hostility and enmity field continues while the verb also develops strong-dislike, distaste, and polite-reluctance uses and the noun develops attributive public uses such as hate speech.

Merriam-Webster Editors · American Heritage Dictionary Editors2 CITATIONSEDGE 1097 ↗

Hate — definition, etymology, and first known use · Definitions, noun and verb etymologies, and first-known-use sections ↗Hate — definition and etymology · Noun and verb entries ↗

STEP 04historical reconstructionprobable

Old High German*hezzen→Middle High German · Middle High Germanhetzen / hatzendrive dogs to hunt; pursue; incite people against someone

SOUND: The Middle High German verb is projected back to an Old High German weak-verb bridge; the a > e fronting and z spelling are compatible with a j-conditioned High German formation, but the exact written OHG form is disputed.
MEANING: The reconstructed bridge carries the chase or persecution value inferred from later German and comparative forms.

Christopher Gordon Bailey · Friedrich Kluge · Dudenredaktion3 CITATIONSEDGE 1121 ↗

hetzen — Rechtschreibung, Bedeutung, Definition, Herkunft · Herkunft ↗The Etymology of the Old High German Weak Verb · vol. 1, data entry “*hezzen” ↗An Etymological Dictionary of the German Language — hetzen · p. 146, hetzen ↗

STEP 04analogical influenceproposed

Gothichatjan→Gothic · Gothic biblical traditionhatanto hate; in a substantivized participle, an enemy or one who hates

SOUND: Sturtevant analyzes hatan beside hatjan through a specifically Gothic secondary association with the fijan/fian pattern; Braune independently records fluctuation between class III and class I.
MEANING: The two Gothic hate paradigms overlap semantically and morphologically without proving that every construction or sense was identical.

Albert Morey Sturtevant · Wilhelm Braune2 CITATIONSEDGE 1141 ↗

A Gothic Grammar with Selections for Reading and a Glossary — hatan and hatjan · §193 note: hatan fluctuates between class III and class I hatjan ↗Notes on Gothic Forms — Hatan : hatjan “to hate” · p. 452, Hatan : hatjan “to hate” ↗

STEP 04translation overlapprobable

Gothichatan→Gothic · Gothic textual traditionfijanto hate or detest; direct an experience of hostility toward a stimulus

SOUND: No sound descent is claimed. The edge records two distinct Gothic class-III verbs used in overlapping translation constructions.
MEANING: Across Luke 1:71 and 6:27, fijan and hatan exchange the roles enemies and those hating.

Project Wulfila editors · Albert Morey Sturtevant3 CITATIONSEDGE 1148 ↗

Gothic Bible word analysis — Luke 6:27, hatandans · Luke 6:27, hatandans for enemies and fijandam for those hating ↗Gothic Bible word analysis — Luke 1:71, hatandane · Luke 1:71, fijandam for enemies and hatandane for those hating ↗Notes on Gothic Forms — Hatan : hatjan “to hate” · p. 452, semantic association of fijan and hatan ↗

STEP 04historical continuationestablished

Middle High Germanhaʒ→German · New High German spelling history before the 1996 reformHaß / haszhostile disposition, hatred, anger, or hostile action

SOUND: Middle High German haʒ continues through New High German hasz or Haß with capitalization of the noun and changing conventions for the final sibilant.
MEANING: The modern hostile-disposition center becomes dominant while the older action, pursuit, anger-in-action, and friendly-rivalry uses recede or disappear.

Dudenredaktion · Wolfgang Pfeifer · Jacob Grimm3 CITATIONSEDGE 1174 ↗

Duden — Hass · Herkunft: Middle High German and Old High German haʒ ↗DWDS — Hass, etymology after Wolfgang Pfeifer · Pfeifer etymology: Old High German and Middle High German haʒ ↗Deutsches Wörterbuch von Jacob Grimm und Wilhelm Grimm — hasz, m. · hasz, m., sections 1–2 ↗

STEP 04historical continuationestablished

Old High Germanhaʒʒēn / haʒʒōn→Middle High German · Middle High Germanhaʒʒento hate, dislike, or act against with hostility

SOUND: The reviewed dictionaries connect Middle High German haʒʒen with Old High German haʒʒēn and haʒʒōn. The edge preserves the printed variants rather than inventing one normalized historical token.
MEANING: DWB aligns Old High German forms with following or pursuing and describes the later feeling-centered sense as more muted; Middle High German evidence contains both hostile action and disposition.

Dudenredaktion · Jacob Grimm · Georg Friedrich Benecke · Wilhelm Müller · Friedrich Zarncke4 CITATIONSEDGE 1186 ↗

Duden — hassen · Herkunft: Middle High German haʒʒen, Old High German haʒʒēn and haʒʒōn ↗Deutsches Wörterbuch von Jacob Grimm und Wilhelm Grimm — hassen · hassen, verb, opening historical forms and sections 1–2 ↗Mittelhochdeutsches Wörterbuch — haʒʒe, swv. · haʒʒe, swv.; Old High German haʒêm and haʒôm comparison ↗Mittelhochdeutsches Handwörterbuch — haʒʒen, swv. · haʒʒen, swv.; BMZ I. 642a ↗

STEP 04paradigm variantprobable

Old High Germanhaʒʒēn / haʒʒōn→Old High German · Old High German; ō-form source-reported from the ninth centuryhazzōnto hate; in reported glosses, to emulate, follow, or pursue

SOUND: The quantity-normalized citation form hazzōn selects the ōn member of a source set also printed as hazōn and haʒʒōn; hazzēn, hazēn, and haʒʒēn represent the neighboring ēn member. This edge is paradigm navigation, not a claim that one written form changed directly into the combined display.
MEANING: The variants occupy the same reviewed hate, emulation, following, and hostile-pursuit field. The edge does not assign every gloss to every token or prove that the ēn and ōn records were interchangeable in every dialect.

Dudenredaktion · Jacob Grimm · Starling editors · University of Texas Linguistics Research Center · Mirjam Marti Heinzle5 CITATIONSEDGE 1242 ↗

Duden — hassen · Herkunft: Old High German haʒʒēn and haʒʒōn ↗Deutsches Wörterbuch von Jacob Grimm und Wilhelm Grimm — hassen · Opening comparative paragraph: Old High German haʒên and haʒôn ↗Proto-Germanic *xatiz, *xatōn-, -ēn- and *xatjan- · Old High German: hazzēn (8th century) and hazzōn (9th century) ↗Old High German Reflex Index — Pokorny k̑ād- · Old High German reflex rows hazēn, hazōn, hazzēn, and hazzōn under Pokorny k̑ād- ↗Doppelformen von ēn- und ōn-Verben im Althochdeutschen · Abstract: Old High German class-III ēn verbs with class-II ōn forms and twenty repeatedly attested double forms ↗

STEP 04orthographic variantestablished

Old Saxonhatan→Old Saxon · Old Saxon Heliand and smaller-monument recordhatōnto hate; in lexicographic description, also pursue

SOUND: The normalized lemma hatōn abstracts over written infinitive hatan in Munich manuscript M and haton in manuscript C. The macron and final-vowel normalization are editorial analyses; this edge does not claim that one token changed directly into the other.
MEANING: No meaning change is assigned. Both infinitive readings belong to the same reviewed hate verb, while their object dates and manuscript identities remain separate.

Gerhard Köbler · University of Texas Linguistics Research Center · SET-U manuscript review3 CITATIONSEDGE 1253 ↗

Altsächsisches Wörterbuch — hatōn and hėttiand · hatōn entry: H Inf. hatan 1451 M, haton 1451 C ↗Old Saxon Reflex Index — hatan, hatōn, heti, and hōti under k̑ād- · Old Saxon reflex rows hatan and hatōn under k̑ād- ↗Heliand — BSB Cgm 25, scan 45, folio 22r, hatan locus · Cgm 25 scan 45, folio 22r, line containing fiund hatan ↗

HISTORICAL STEP 056 EDGES

STEP 05historical continuationestablished

Middle Englishhatrede / hatreden / hateredyn→Present-Day English · 13th century–todayhatredintense animosity, hostility, extreme dislike, or hostile resentment

SOUND: Middle English hatrede / hatreden loses the final suffixal syllable while the reduced -red spelling and /rɪd/ pronunciation become fixed in modern English.
MEANING: The medieval state or condition of hate continues as intense animosity, hostility, or extreme dislike; countable hatreds later names particular hostilities.

Merriam-Webster Editors · American Heritage Dictionary Editors · Anatoly Liberman3 CITATIONSEDGE 1084 ↗

Hatred — definition, etymology, and first known use · Word History: Middle English hatrede and 13th-century first known use ↗Hatred — definition and etymology · Bracketed etymology and modern definition ↗The shortest history of hatred: Part 1 · Final paragraph: -red “condition” and hatred displacing Middle English hete ↗

STEP 05derivationprobable

Middle Englishhaten→Middle English · Middle Englishhatehate, extreme anger, hostility, or the lexical base of hatrede

SOUND: The noun hate is analyzed as a zero-derived or remodeled form based on Middle English haten; this edge represents Merriam-Webster’s probable analysis, not unanimous consensus.
MEANING: The verbal act or disposition of hating supplies a remodeled noun for the emotion.

Merriam-Webster Editors2 CITATIONSEDGE 1093 ↗

Hate — definition, etymology, and first known use · Noun etymology: probably derivative of haten ↗Hate — definition and etymology · Noun etymology: Middle English from Old English hete ↗

STEP 05historical continuationestablished

Middle High Germanhetzen / hatzen→Early New High German · Early New High Germanhetzen / hessen / hittzenhunt with dogs; drive; set people against one another

SOUND: Middle High German hetzen and hatzen continue into Early New High German with regional vowel and spelling variation.
MEANING: Driving dogs after quarry extends to urging, provoking, and setting people against other people.

Thomas Plate · Oskar Reichmann et al. · Heidelberger Akademie der Wissenschaften3 CITATIONSEDGE 1120 ↗

Mittelhochdeutsches Wörterbuch — hetzen · hetzen, sense 1 and transferred human-target examples ↗Frühneuhochdeutsches Wörterbuch — hetzen · Belegblock, senses 2–3 ↗Deutsches Rechtswörterbuch — hetzen, hessen · hetzen, hessen, hunting senses I–II ↗

STEP 05orthographic variantprobable

Gothicfijan→Gothic · Gothic historical-dictionary normalizationfianj-less variant of fijan

SOUND: Written Gothic loses j in some fijan forms before a vowel; the historical lemma fian normalizes that j-less surface pattern.
MEANING: No lexical split is established: both shapes remain one hate verb.

Albert Morey Sturtevant · Project Wulfila editors2 CITATIONSEDGE 1145 ↗

Notes on Gothic Forms — Hatan : hatjan “to hate” · pp. 451–452, loss of j in fijan : fian ↗Lemma fian — redirect and historical dictionary variant · Lemma fian redirects to fijan ↗

STEP 05orthographic standardizationestablished

GermanHaß / hasz→German · current German standard spelling since 1996Hassintense aversion, rejection, or hostility toward a person, group, or institution

SOUND: The 1996 German spelling reform writes ss after the short vowel in Hass where the pre-reform standard used ß. No pronunciation change is asserted.
MEANING: The lexical meaning remains intense aversion or hostility; the edge models spelling standardization, not a new emotional category.

Dudenredaktion1 CITATIONEDGE 1173 ↗

Duden — Hass · Current headword, meaning, and Did you know?: spelling changed in 1996 ↗

STEP 05historical continuationestablished

Middle High Germanhaʒʒen→Early New High German · Early New High German textual recordhassento hate or strongly dislike

SOUND: Middle High German haʒʒen continues into the hassen spelling of the Early New High German record as the historical sibilant notation and spelling conventions change.
MEANING: The Middle High German record already includes ordinary hating and disliking; action-centered persecution contexts recede while hostile disposition becomes central.

Dudenredaktion · Jacob Grimm · Matthias Lexer3 CITATIONSEDGE 1185 ↗

Duden — hassen · Herkunft: Middle High German haʒʒen ↗Deutsches Wörterbuch von Jacob Grimm und Wilhelm Grimm — hassen · hassen, verb, historical forms and sense transition ↗Mittelhochdeutsches Handwörterbuch — haʒʒen, swv. · haʒʒen, swv.; preterites haʒʒete and haʒte ↗

HISTORICAL STEP 062 EDGES

STEP 06historical continuationestablished

Early New High Germanhetzen / hessen / hittzen→German · Modern Germanhetzenhunt or drive; hurry; incite or stir hostility

SOUND: Regional Early New High German spellings converge on standard hetzen; inflection and pronunciation continue to develop while the lexical stem remains recognizable.
MEANING: The inherited chase and incitement senses continue, while reflexive and intransitive hurry uses become prominent in modern German.

Dudenredaktion · Oskar Reichmann et al.2 CITATIONSEDGE 1119 ↗

hetzen — Rechtschreibung, Bedeutung, Definition, Herkunft · Meaning groups 1–3 and Herkunft ↗Frühneuhochdeutsches Wörterbuch — hetzen · Sense groups 1–3 and cited Early New High German records ↗

STEP 06historical continuationestablished

Early New High Germanhassen→German · New High German and current Germanhassento feel hatred toward someone; to feel strong aversion toward a person, thing, or action

SOUND: Early New High German hassen continues into New High German with the same normalized spelling while pronunciation, inflection, and usage are standardized over time.
MEANING: The modern verb retains person-directed hatred and also supports a broad strong-aversion sense for things and actions; the edge does not assign one intensity to every historical token.

Dudenredaktion · Wolfgang Pfeifer · Jacob Grimm3 CITATIONSEDGE 1184 ↗

Duden — hassen · Meanings 1–2, pronunciation, and grammar ↗DWDS — hassen, etymology after Wolfgang Pfeifer · Current headword, pronunciation, and literary examples ↗Deutsches Wörterbuch von Jacob Grimm und Wilhelm Grimm — hassen · hassen, verb, sense 2 and New High German examples ↗

“Every” means every descendant in the reviewed SET-U graph. It does not convert missing scholarship or missing ingestion into a claim of historical completeness. The coverage ledger remains the honest denominator.

RECORDED EVIDENCE

ATTESTATIONS / FIRST KNOWN USE

NO RECORDED WITNESS ATTACHED.

That is expected for a reconstructed form: the node is inferred from comparison, not quoted from a surviving occurrence.

EDITORIAL REUSE

WORD DOSSIERS USING THIS NODE