HOW WORDS MOVE.
HOW MEANINGS MUTATE.

Latin calculus may be a borrowing from the same unidentified source as Greek káchlēx; no donor form is reconstructed.

Both words denote a small stone or shoreline shingle, but the direction and mechanism of transmission are unknown.

Greek káchlēx and its cited variants display alternations Beekes treats as substrate signals; no donor form is reconstructed.

The Greek shoreline-shingle word may share an unidentified source with Latin calculus.

Greek arithmos is analyzed through a counting base represented by Merriam-Webster as PIE *h₂rei-; Etymonline publishes an expanded *erei-dhmo- formation.

The inherited counting sense remains, while the precise prehistoric formation is reconstructed.

A published alternative derives Latin lēx from a laid-down formation in *legh- rather than the gather root *leǵ-.

What is set or laid down becomes a law; the comparison would reconnect law and legal only at a disputed prehistoric depth.

The source analyzes *qan-yaq within Proto-Eskimo from *qan(ə)-; the notation is preserved without inventing an unattested segment-by-segment derivation.

A motion or approach base is proposed beneath the lexicalized kayak formation.

The reviewed study places kayguk in an internal Turkic *kad- / *kad-ï history; a competing *kay- “turn, bend” account remains open.

A fir-tree or wood base is proposed to have developed into a boat word, plausibly through material association.

The Greek form is analyzed from *setu-mo- with loss of initial *s and Greek development of the reconstructed formation.

A reconstructed adjective of truth or reality continues as Greek “true, real, actual.”

The proposed *-mo- adjective is built on the reconstructed *set-u- base.

The true-order base becomes an adjective meaning true or real.

The proposed path from *set-eu-o- to Greek ἐτεός includes loss of the inherited initial sibilant; Gális discusses psilosis and only tentatively raises contact as an explanation.

A possessive true-order adjective yields the attested senses true and really.

The proposed possessive adjective *set-eu-o- is analyzed from a *set-u- or *steu- base.

The base notion of true order becomes “having true order; real.”

Classical Armenian ստոյգ is compared with a reconstructed *stéu-gho- preform; the consonant sequence and vocalism are comparative, not attested.

The reconstructed real or certain sense continues in the Armenian adjective and adverb.

The proposed Armenian preform is connected through extension and reorganization of the *set-u- or *steu- base; no single intermediate is written.

The comparative field remains truth, certainty, and reality.

English etymological is alternatively segmented as etymology plus -ical.

The discipline noun becomes a relational adjective.

English also forms learned words directly on Latin -alis.

The adjective-forming function remains stable.

English also uses -ist in words formed directly on Latin -ista.

The person-forming function continues.

Latin persōna is probably related to or borrowed from Etruscan phersu.

An Etruscan masked figure is proposed behind the Latin mask, role, and person word.

Etruscan phersu has been compared with Greek πρόσωπον, but the exact historical direction and mediation are uncertain.

Masked figure, face, mask, and character provide a semantic comparison.

American Heritage labels the immediate French source Old French, while Merriam-Webster labels it Anglo-French.

The human adjective crosses through medieval French into English.

Middle English boi has been compared with Old French embuié, a person in fetters.

The servant or churl field is proposed to connect with a restrained person.

Middle English girle has been derived from a reconstructed Old English *gyrela.

The child or young-person field is projected backward only tentatively.

Middle English girle has been compared with Old English gierela, garment.

A garment word is proposed as a lexical comparison without a secure semantic bridge.

No direct sound derivation is asserted; the comparison is attributed to a possible shared European substrate source.

A baking-vessel term is compared with a bread-loaf word through a possible shared substrate setting.

No direct sound derivation is asserted; the Greek variant participates in the same possible substrate comparison.

A baking-vessel term is compared with a bread-loaf word through a possible shared substrate setting.

American Heritage labels the French intermediary Old French, while Merriam-Webster labels it Anglo-French.

The shape and form noun passes from Latin through medieval French into English.