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USEnglish (en) · Etymology 2Source text

Abbreviation.

usEnglish (en) · Etymology 1Source text

Etymology tree Proto-Indo-European *n̥smé Proto-Germanic *uns Old English ūs Middle English us English us From Middle English us, from Old English ūs (“us”, dative personal pronoun), from Proto-West Germanic *uns, from Proto-Germanic *uns (“us”), from Proto-Indo-European *n̥swé, alteration of *n̥smé (“us”). The compensatory lengthening was lost in Middle English due to the word being unstressed when used. Cognate with Saterland Frisian uus (“us”), West Frisian us, ús (“us”), Low German uns, us (“us”), Dutch ons (“us”), German uns (“us”), Danish os (“us”), Latin nōs (“we, us”).

usEnglish (en) · Etymology 2Source text

See the etymology of the corresponding lemma form.

Browse the independently attributed sources →

INDEPENDENT SOURCE LIBRARY

More sources for this spelling

These are spelling matches, not a claim of identical senses or agreement. Historical accounts retain their own editions and limits; none is automatically promoted into reviewed ancestry.

Chambers (1908)

1908

UsEnglish · e-38700-8396
Us, us, pron. the objective case of we.—adv. Us′ward, toward us. [A.S.]
Read the full source record →

72REVIEWED RESULTS

12WORD DOSSIERS

12HISTORICAL NODES

12SOURCES

24CLAIMS

12WITNESSES

MODERN ENTRY POINTS

WORD DOSSIERS

noun combining formdossier summary

-logy

A bound English word element used in formations involving discourse or expression and in names of doctrines, theories, sciences, and fields of study.

onomastic compound elementcontrarian claim

-rīx

An attested Gaulish second member meaning “king” or “prince,” visible in compound personal names such as Dumnorix and Vercingetorix and inherited from Proto-Celtic *rīx-s.

nouncontrarian claim

December

The twelfth month in the modern calendar; its inherited Latin name literally identifies it as the tenth month.

German masculine nouncontrarian claim

Feind

The modern German noun for a personal, political, military, or ideological enemy or opponent. Duden derives it through Middle High German vīnt or vīant and Old High German fīand, literally the hating one; DWDS dates Old High German fīant and fījant to the eighth century and identifies the Germanic ancestor as a petrified substantivized present participle. Grimm’s dictionary independently compares Gothic fijands, Old English fēond, English fiend, Dutch vijand, and Nordic forms, while warning that its own still-deeper foam hypothesis required confirmation. The reviewed route therefore follows the inherited enemy noun to reconstructed *fi(j)and- and *fi(j)ēn-, then treats *peh₁- as proposed and stops.

German masculine noundossier summary

Freund

German Freund continues Middle High German vriunt and Old High German friunt. DWDS/Pfeifer, Duden, and Grimm independently analyze the inherited Germanic formation as a substantivized present participle of the verb represented by Gothic frijōn and Old English frēogan: historically a loving or favorably disposed one. The record is semantically wider than a modern close companion: the historical dictionaries also document neighbor, relative, lover, ally, supporter, patron, address, and euphemistic uses. The graph joins the High German line to the same reviewed *frijōnd- and *frī- nodes as English friend, keeps *prī- proposed, and stops.

German masculine noundossier summary

Hass

The modern German noun for intense aversion, rejection, or hostility toward a person, group, or institution. Duden traces Middle and Old High German haʒ to suffering, sorrow, and resentment and records the 1996 spelling change from Haß to Hass. DWDS/Pfeifer reports the Old High German noun from the eighth century and places it in the Germanic family of Old Saxon heti, Old English hete, Old Norse hatr, Gothic hatis, and related forms. Grimm’s DWB preserves a more complicated semantic record: hostile pursuit or action, anger expressed in deeds, ordinary hostile disposition, and even measured rivalry during friendly competition. The reviewed route reuses *hatiz- and the qualified *ḱh₂d-es- / *ḱeh₂d- comparison, then stops.

noundossier summary

adverb

A grammatical class commonly modifying verbs, adjectives, other adverbs, phrases, clauses, or sentences; the English term continues Latin adverbium.

nouncontrarian claim

aguacate

The Spanish word for the avocado tree and fruit, borrowed from Nahuatl āhuacatl, whose historical records include both fruit and testicle senses.

nounhistorical form

algorism

The older English word for calculation with Hindu-Arabic numerals, transmitted through French and Medieval Latin from the name al-Khwārizmī.

nounhistorical form

algorithm

A finite or stepwise procedure, descended through medieval arithmetic vocabulary from the Latinized name of al-Khwārizmī.

nouncontrarian claim

bayou

English bayou, recorded by 1763, came from Louisiana French bayouque. An early Choctaw *bayok is a plausible proposed source, but the historical form and its alleged contraction to modern bók are not securely attested.

verbhistorical form

betroth

To promise in marriage; a Middle English prefixed formation built on the same historical noun that yielded truth and troth.

Proto-Indo-European / Indo-European

ATTESTED / RECONSTRUCTED / BOUNDARY

HISTORICAL FORMS

Proto-Siouan / Siouan

*ahtí•

dwell, dwelling, house

DATE: Proto-Siouan prehistory
MATCH: gloss
DOSSIERS: 1

Choctaw / Muskogean

*bayok

proposed early Choctaw form for a bayou or watercourse

DATE: proposed early Choctaw
MATCH: language family
DOSSIERS: 1

*kad-

a proposed base used in a wider Celtic, Germanic, Italic, Iranian, and Greek comparison

DATE: proposed Proto-Indo-European base
MATCH: gloss
DOSSIERS: 1

Proto-Indo-European / Indo-European

*lagojanan

to cause to lie; to lay

DATE: Proto-Germanic prehistory
MATCH: gloss
DOSSIERS: 1

*meue-

to push away

DATE: Indo-European prehistory
MATCH: gloss
DOSSIERS: 2

Proto-Indo-European / Indo-European

*mūs

mouse

DATE: Proto-Germanic prehistory
MATCH: gloss
DOSSIERS: 1

*mūs-

mouse; also the family behind specialized muscle words

DATE: Proto-Indo-European prehistory
MATCH: gloss
DOSSIERS: 4

Proto-Oceanic / Austronesian

*rehtaz

right, just, correct, straight

DATE: Proto-Germanic horizon
MATCH: gloss
DOSSIERS: 1

*tampu

sacred, forbidden; under ritual restriction

DATE: Proto-Oceanic reconstruction
MATCH: language family
DOSSIERS: 3

*traustam

confidence, firmness

DATE: Proto-Germanic horizon
MATCH: transliteration
DOSSIERS: 1

Middle English / Indo-European

*treuwaz

firm, faithful, trustworthy

DATE: Proto-Germanic horizon
MATCH: gloss
DOSSIERS: 5

●

-rede / -reden

a state, condition, quality, status, estimation, rule, or relation to X

DATE: Middle English
MATCH: gloss
DOSSIERS: 0

WHERE INTERPRETATION IS TESTED

CLAIMS & DISPUTES

SCHOLARLY DISPUTES / 12

openboundaryposition text

Can aguacate be securely pushed deeper than āhuacatl?

Not from the reviewed sources. The institutional dictionaries reach the Nahuatl word and its historical witnesses but do not establish a deeper lexical ancestor.

2 CITATIONS / AUDIT ↗aguacate DOSSIER ↗

openprobableposition text

Does the English record begin in the 13th or 14th century?

The reviewed reports differ. Etymonline gives an early-thirteenth-century algorism; Merriam-Webster gives a fourteenth-century first-known-use horizon.

2 CITATIONS / AUDIT ↗algorism DOSSIER ↗

openprobableposition text

Does the English record begin in the 13th or 15th century?

The reviewed source reports differ. Etymonline gives mid-thirteenth-century arsmetike; Merriam-Webster gives a fifteenth-century first-known-use horizon.

2 CITATIONS / AUDIT ↗arithmetic DOSSIER ↗

openproposedposition text

Is the deepest counting root h₂rei- or erei-dhmo- from *re-?

The references use different levels and notations: Merriam-Webster derives the Greek base through *h₂rei-, while Etymonline prints an expanded *erei-dhmo- formation tied to *re-.

2 CITATIONS / AUDIT ↗arithmetic DOSSIER ↗

openproposedposition text

Is Choctaw bayuk a securely attested source of bayou?

No. An early Choctaw *bayok is plausible and accepted in a major handbook, but later bayuk is not securely attested and contraction to bók was conjectural.

2 CITATIONS / AUDIT ↗bayou DOSSIER ↗

openproposedposition text

Which Aboriginal language supplied boomerang?

Dharug bumarin and a Dharawal bou-mar-rang form are published candidates, but the Australian National Dictionary Centre says the exact source language remains uncertain.

3 CITATIONS / AUDIT ↗boomerang DOSSIER ↗

openproposedposition text

Does the Éigse line certainly use cais once for love and once for hatred?

Not certainly. eDIL tentatively translates "mo chais is cais 'na agaid" as "my love ... is met by hatred(?)" and prints a question mark on the second reading.

1 CITATIONS / AUDIT ↗cais DOSSIER ↗

openproposedposition text

Are the opposite readings one polysemous word, merged historical homonyms, or a lexicographic convenience?

eDIL groups them in one headword but does not, by that editorial act alone, settle the full historical relationship among every love and hate occurrence.

openproposedposition text

Is Proto-Celtic *katsi- the secure direct parent of cais?

Koch publishes the comparison, but the reviewed materials do not expose a complete dated Goidelic derivation or independent consensus sufficient to mark the edge established.

openproposedposition text

Does cais securely prove cognacy with the Germanic hate family?

No. The Celtic–Germanic comparison is serious enough to display, but the graph keeps it as a context link rather than a genealogical edge because formal and semantic acceptance remain unsettled.

openprobableposition text

What is the earliest surviving use of cais in either sense?

Not established here. eDIL supplies located citations but the underlying objects and dates were not normalized or directly inspected for an earliest-use audit.

2 CITATIONS / AUDIT ↗calculate DOSSIER ↗

openproposedposition text

Is calculus securely a diminutive of calx “limestone”?

Not securely. The traditional analysis is morphologically and semantically irregular; an alternative links Latin calculus and Greek stone words through a possible shared substrate source.

CONTRARIAN TRUTHS / 12

RANK 4GRADE Aranked reveal

Humility is an earth-and-lowness metaphor.

Latin humus “ground” produced humilis “low,” then humilitās “lowness,” before the moral virtue.

3 CITATIONS / AUDIT ↗humility DOSSIER ↗

RANK 5GRADE Aranked reveal

Calculation began with a pebble in the hand.

Latin calculus was a small stone used for reckoning before calculation became abstract.

2 CITATIONS / AUDIT ↗calculate DOSSIER ↗

RANK 6GRADE Aranked reveal

Evidence became a thread you could follow.

Old English cliewen was a ball of thread; the labyrinth metaphor turned it into guidance through uncertainty.

2 CITATIONS / AUDIT ↗clue DOSSIER ↗

RANK 7GRADE Aranked reveal

Nice crossed from ignorance to approval.

Latin nescius “ignorant” became foolish or wanton, then fastidious and precise, and finally pleasant or kind.

2 CITATIONS / AUDIT ↗nice DOSSIER ↗

RANK 9GRADE Acontrarian claim

The most repeated origin story is not the most rigorous answer.

Mapuche ancestry is a serious, evidenced proposal—but current RAE and a historical Spanish argument keep the deeper source genuinely open.

3 CITATIONS / AUDIT ↗poncho DOSSIER ↗

RANK 10GRADE Acontrarian claim

Andean neighbors need not be linguistic cousins.

Alpaca comes from Aymara while llama comes from Quechua: the words travel through Spanish from different families.

4 CITATIONS / AUDIT ↗alpaca DOSSIER ↗

RANK 16GRADE Aranked reveal

Humiliation is evidenced in English before humiliate.

Chaucer’s Middle English humiliacioun occurs in a humility passage; Merriam-Webster reports the English verb humiliate only circa 1534. Christian Latin and French preserve lowering, abasement, mortification, and self-humbling before current definitions center degradation, disgrace, and shame.

4 CITATIONS / AUDIT ↗humiliation DOSSIER ↗

RANK 18GRADE Acontrarian claim

The famous Gaulish ending is -rīx, not decorative -ix.

Cambridge identifies Gaulish -rix /-rīxs/ “king” inside Dumnorix and Vercingetorix and derives it from Proto-Celtic *rīx-s. The r belongs to the historical element; the exact force of that element still varies across individual names.

3 CITATIONS / AUDIT ↗-rīx DOSSIER ↗

RANK 23GRADE Aranked reveal

The d in kindred is an intruder—and kind is not in the word.

Kindred is kin plus a fossilized native element meaning a condition or state. One branch reaches the birth root; the other reaches a fit-together root. The modern d arrived between n and r after the compound already existed.

4 CITATIONS / AUDIT ↗kindred DOSSIER ↗

RANK 27GRADE Aranked reveal

The Old English verb survives most visibly as an enemy.

The located weak-verb corpus inventory gives hettan only one form: hettende. Bosworth–Toller records that surface family repeatedly under hettend, “enemy” or “antagonist,” including Genesis and the Phoenix. The verb is therefore not a neat recovered paradigm; it is a lemma inferred at the edge between action, agent, and lexicalized foe.

4 CITATIONS / AUDIT ↗hettan DOSSIER ↗

RANK 29GRADE Aranked reveal

One Gothic hate verb survives once—in a command to do good to those who hate you.

Project Wulfila’s only verified hatjan token is hatjandam in Matthew 5:44, directly visible on Codex Argenteus folio 3v. A parallel “love your enemies” command in Luke 6:27 instead uses hatandans from class-III hatan. The translation gloss “hate” therefore hides a genuine grammatical and historical dispute.

7 CITATIONS / AUDIT ↗hatjan DOSSIER ↗

RANK 30GRADE Aranked reveal

Gothic hatis—the noun related to English hate—survives chiefly as wrath, including the wrath to come and the wrath of God.

Project Wulfila reports fifteen tokens in hatis, hatiza, and hatize. Fourteen are biblical; Streitberg maps the family chiefly to Greek orgē, gives Galatians 5:20 thumos, and flags Ephesians 4:31 because both stand together. Codex Argenteus folio 129r directly preserves hatiza in “the wrath to come.” Even the paradigm resists simplification: synchronic neuter a-stem, historically an i-stem remodeled into it.

7 CITATIONS / AUDIT ↗hatis DOSSIER ↗

BOOKS / DICTIONARIES / ARTICLES / DATABASES

SOURCES

historical dictionary102 CLAIM LINKS

Hate — definition, etymology, and first known use

Merriam-Webster Editors / 2026

etymological dictionary88 CLAIM LINKS

Etymological Dictionary of Proto-Germanic — fi(j)ēn- and fi(j)and-

Guus Kroonen / 2013

author or editorAUDIT EVERY USE ↗

research database24 CLAIM LINKS

Indo-European Lexicon — k̑ād- : k̑ədes- : k̑əd-s- and its reflexes

Linguistics Research Center editors / 2026

publisherAUDIT EVERY USE ↗

historical dictionary23 CLAIM LINKS

Liddell–Scott–Jones Greek-English Lexicon — κῆδος

Henry George Liddell · Robert Scott · Henry Stuart Jones · Scaife ATLAS editors / 1940

historical dictionary21 CLAIM LINKS

An Icelandic-English Dictionary — fjándi

Richard Cleasby · Guðbrandur Vigfússon / 1874

historical dictionary21 CLAIM LINKS

Calculus — Word History and Etymology Note

Merriam-Webster Editors / 2026

historical dictionary20 CLAIM LINKS

An Icelandic-English Dictionary — FRÆNDI

Richard Cleasby · Guðbrandur Vigfússon / 1874

scholarly reference20 CLAIM LINKS

Earliest Known Uses of Some of the Words of Mathematics: A

John Aldrich et al. / 2026

scholarly dictionary20 CLAIM LINKS

Etymological Dictionary of Proto-Germanic

Guus Kroonen / 2013

author or editorAUDIT EVERY USE ↗

research database20 CLAIM LINKS

Indo-European Lexicon: *leg-

Linguistics Research Center

publisherAUDIT EVERY USE ↗

scholarly reference18 CLAIM LINKS

Indo-European Root mūs-

Calvert Watkins and American Heritage Dictionary Editors / 2026

historical dictionary16 CLAIM LINKS

Dairy — Definition, Word History, and First Known Use

Merriam-Webster Editors / 2026

FIRST USES & HISTORICAL OBJECTS

ATTESTATION WITNESSES

Codex Argenteus facsimile 276 — folio 57v, Mark 1:6–13witness excerpt / OPEN RECORD ↗

Codex Argenteus, Mark 1:11

liufs / liufs / early 6th century

Codex Argenteus facsimile 6 — folio 3v, Matthew 5:42–47reporting source / OPEN RECORD ↗

Codex Argenteus, Matthew 5:44

hatjan / hatjan / early 6th century

Codex Argenteus facsimile 157 — folio 129r, Luke 3:5–9reporting source / OPEN RECORD ↗

Codex Argenteus, Luke 3:7

hatis / hatis / early 6th century

Codex Argenteus facsimile 145 — folio 123r, Luke 1:69–77witness excerpt / OPEN RECORD ↗

Codex Argenteus, Luke 1:71

hatan / hatan / early 6th century

Codex Argenteus facsimile 186 — folio 143v, Luke 6:25–30witness excerpt / OPEN RECORD ↗

Codex Argenteus, Luke 6:27

hatan / hatan / early 6th century

Codex Argenteus facsimile 57 — folio 33r, John 7:2–8reporting source / OPEN RECORD ↗

Codex Argenteus, John 7:7

fijan / fijan / early 6th century

Codex Argenteus facsimile 96 — folio 76v, John 12:19–25reporting source / OPEN RECORD ↗

Codex Argenteus, John 12:25

fijan / fijan / early 6th century

Codex Argenteus facsimile 145 — folio 123r, Luke 1:69–77witness excerpt / OPEN RECORD ↗

Codex Argenteus, Luke 1:71

fijan / fijan / early 6th century

Codex Argenteus facsimile 186 — folio 143v, Luke 6:25–30reporting source / OPEN RECORD ↗

Codex Argenteus, Luke 6:27

fijan / fijan / early 6th century

Codex Argenteus facsimile 6 — folio 3v, Matthew 5:42–47reporting source / OPEN RECORD ↗

Codex Argenteus, Matthew 5:43

fijands / fijands / early 6th century

Codex Argenteus facsimile 6 — folio 3v, Matthew 5:42–47reporting source / OPEN RECORD ↗

Codex Argenteus, Matthew 5:44

fijands / fijands / early 6th century