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THE GRAPH.
Find a modern word—or search sideways through reconstructed roots, historical forms, meanings, languages, scholars, sources, claims, disputes, and witnesses.
WIKTIONARY VIA KAIKKI / WIKTEXTRACT
Imported dictionary evidence
These are source reports, not reviewed *SET-U ancestry. A list of templates or numbered etymologies is not an ancestor chain. Scholarly disagreements remain in the original source text.
35,981 English word records · 45,491 etymology sections in this online subset
PARTIAL ENGLISH COVERAGE · FULL CORPUS REMAINS LOCAL4 source sections across 1 headword matching “Na”. These are separate from the reviewed results below.
naEnglish (en) · Etymology 1Source text
From Middle English na, from Old English nā, from Old English ne (“not”) + ā (“ever”). More at no.
Original Wiktionary entry and references ↗naEnglish (en) · Etymology 2Source text
Development of Etymology 1, above; compare nah.
Original Wiktionary entry and references ↗naEnglish (en) · Etymology 4Source text
Borrowed from Tagalog na.
Original Wiktionary entry and references ↗naEnglish (en) · Etymology 5Source text
Borrowed from Hindi ना (nā).
Original Wiktionary entry and references ↗INDEPENDENT SOURCE LIBRARY
More sources for this spelling
These are spelling matches, not a claim of identical senses or agreement. Historical accounts retain their own editions and limits; none is automatically promoted into reviewed ancestry.
Browse the independently attributed sources →0112
MODERN ENTRY POINTS
WORD DOSSIERS
noun combining formdossier summary
-logy
A bound English word element used in formations involving discourse or expression and in names of doctrines, theories, sciences, and fields of study.
OPEN THE FULL LINEAGE ↗onomastic compound elementcontrarian claim
-rīx
An attested Gaulish second member meaning “king” or “prince,” visible in compound personal names such as Dumnorix and Vercingetorix and inherited from Proto-Celtic *rīx-s.
OPEN THE FULL LINEAGE ↗nouncontrarian claim
December
The twelfth month in the modern calendar; its inherited Latin name literally identifies it as the tenth month.
OPEN THE FULL LINEAGE ↗German masculine nouncontrarian claim
Feind
The modern German noun for a personal, political, military, or ideological enemy or opponent. Duden derives it through Middle High German vīnt or vīant and Old High German fīand, literally the hating one; DWDS dates Old High German fīant and fījant to the eighth century and identifies the Germanic ancestor as a petrified substantivized present participle. Grimm’s dictionary independently compares Gothic fijands, Old English fēond, English fiend, Dutch vijand, and Nordic forms, while warning that its own still-deeper foam hypothesis required confirmation. The reviewed route therefore follows the inherited enemy noun to reconstructed *fi(j)and- and *fi(j)ēn-, then treats *peh₁- as proposed and stops.
OPEN THE FULL LINEAGE ↗German masculine noundossier summary
Freund
German Freund continues Middle High German vriunt and Old High German friunt. DWDS/Pfeifer, Duden, and Grimm independently analyze the inherited Germanic formation as a substantivized present participle of the verb represented by Gothic frijōn and Old English frēogan: historically a loving or favorably disposed one. The record is semantically wider than a modern close companion: the historical dictionaries also document neighbor, relative, lover, ally, supporter, patron, address, and euphemistic uses. The graph joins the High German line to the same reviewed *frijōnd- and *frī- nodes as English friend, keeps *prī- proposed, and stops.
OPEN THE FULL LINEAGE ↗German masculine noundossier summary
Hass
The modern German noun for intense aversion, rejection, or hostility toward a person, group, or institution. Duden traces Middle and Old High German haʒ to suffering, sorrow, and resentment and records the 1996 spelling change from Haß to Hass. DWDS/Pfeifer reports the Old High German noun from the eighth century and places it in the Germanic family of Old Saxon heti, Old English hete, Old Norse hatr, Gothic hatis, and related forms. Grimm’s DWB preserves a more complicated semantic record: hostile pursuit or action, anger expressed in deeds, ordinary hostile disposition, and even measured rivalry during friendly competition. The reviewed route reuses *hatiz- and the qualified *ḱh₂d-es- / *ḱeh₂d- comparison, then stops.
OPEN THE FULL LINEAGE ↗nouncontrarian claim
aguacate
The Spanish word for the avocado tree and fruit, borrowed from Nahuatl āhuacatl, whose historical records include both fruit and testicle senses.
OPEN THE FULL LINEAGE ↗nouncontrarian claim
algebra
A mathematical discipline whose English name travels through Medieval Latin from Arabic al-jabr, restoration or completion.
OPEN THE FULL LINEAGE ↗nouncontrarian claim
algorism
The older English word for calculation with Hindu-Arabic numerals, transmitted through French and Medieval Latin from the name al-Khwārizmī.
OPEN THE FULL LINEAGE ↗nouncontrarian claim
algorithm
A finite or stepwise procedure, descended through medieval arithmetic vocabulary from the Latinized name of al-Khwārizmī.
OPEN THE FULL LINEAGE ↗nouncontrarian claim
alpaca
An English animal and fiber word borrowed through Spanish from Aymara allpaqa / allphaqa.
OPEN THE FULL LINEAGE ↗nouncontrarian claim
avocado
An English reshaping of Spanish aguacate from Nahuatl āhuacatl, a word documented with both avocado and testicle senses.
OPEN THE FULL LINEAGE ↗0212
ATTESTED / RECONSTRUCTED / BOUNDARY
HISTORICAL FORMS
*
Proto-Indo-European / Indo-European
*dhē-mnā-
woman or nursing female formation
- DATE
- Proto-Indo-European suffixed reduced formation
- MATCH
- gloss
- DOSSIERS
- 1
Middle Chinese (reconstructed reading) / Sino-Tibetan
*drae
tea; name of a plant
- DATE
- Middle Chinese reconstruction
- MATCH
- gloss
- DOSSIERS
- 5
Proto-Indo-European / Indo-European
*gn̥ə-t-
born or produced; a birth-, nature-, or kind-forming derivative
- DATE
- Proto-Indo-European suffixed zero grade
- MATCH
- gloss
- DOSSIERS
- 1
Proto-Germanic / Indo-European
*kundiz
natural, native, or fitting
- DATE
- Proto-Germanic
- MATCH
- gloss
- DOSSIERS
- 0
Proto-Germanic / Indo-European
*lagojanan
to cause to lie; to lay
- DATE
- Proto-Germanic prehistory
- MATCH
- gloss
- DOSSIERS
- 1
Old Chinese (reconstructed) / Sino-Tibetan
*lˤra
name of a plant
- DATE
- Old Chinese reconstruction
- MATCH
- gloss
- DOSSIERS
- 7
Proto-Celtic / Indo-European
*rīx-s
king, nominative singular
- DATE
- Proto-Celtic
- MATCH
- gloss
- DOSSIERS
- 2
Proto-Finnic / Uralic
*sakna
sauna; proposed earlier stove reference
- DATE
- Proto-Finnic reconstruction
- MATCH
- gloss
- DOSSIERS
- 1
Palaeo-Germanic / Indo-European
*stagh-ná-
pile or stack; proposed source of a stone-pile stove term
- DATE
- Palaeo-Germanic reconstruction
- MATCH
- gloss
- DOSSIERS
- 1
Proto-Germanic / Indo-European
*xatjanan
a reconstructed Germanic weak verb represented by Gothic hatjan, Old English hettan, and Middle High German hetzen
- DATE
- Proto-Germanic
- MATCH
- transliteration
- DOSSIERS
- 3
Proto-Germanic / Indo-European
*xatēnan ~ *xatōjanan
reconstructed class-III or related weak verbs meaning hate
- DATE
- Proto-Germanic reconstruction alternatives
- MATCH
- transliteration
- DOSSIERS
- 6
Gaulish / Indo-European
-rīx
king or prince as the second member of compound personal names
- DATE
- first-century BCE onomastic hosts
- MATCH
- gloss
- DOSSIERS
- 1
0324
WHERE INTERPRETATION IS TESTED
CLAIMS & DISPUTES
SCHOLARLY DISPUTES / 12
openproposedposition text
Is the deepest root *leǵ- or *sleǵ-?
The traditional *leǵ- reconstruction remains widely represented, while published scholarship argues that the gather or collect root began with *s. The graph preserves both analyses.
openprobableposition text
Did -rīx mean exactly “king” in every compound name?
Not necessarily. The king or prince value is secure for the element, but scholarship distinguishes names where it is determinative from analyses in which it is semantically bleached or intensifying. Each host therefore requires its own compositional claim.
openprobableposition text
Is the exact phonetic shape of *fi(j)and- directly known?
No. The form is a comparative reconstruction. Optional j notation, branch vowels, and the relation of written historical variants require analysis rather than direct Proto-Germanic observation.
openprobableposition text
Can the exact lexicalization date of the loving participle be known?
No. The formation predates the daughter-language records and is already nominal in the earliest High German evidence.
openproposedposition text
Was the original meaning hostile pursuit or suffering and sorrow?
Unresolved. DWB argues for hostile pursuit or persecution as the original center; Duden glosses the origin as suffering, sorrow, and resentment; DWDS foregrounds hostile disposition, resentment, and enmity.
openprobableposition text
Is the exact Proto-Germanic noun *hatiz- or *hataz?
The noun is reconstructed, and published notation reflects stem alternation and analytical choices. Koch prints *hataz ~ *hatiz- while Merriam-Webster foregrounds *hatiz-.
openproposedposition text
Do Celtic cais and Greek κῆδος prove that love and hate share one root?
No. They belong to a disputed wider comparison. Middle Irish cais carries a striking love-and-hatred field, but that does not make German Liebe an ancestor or cognate of Hass.
openboundaryposition text
Can aguacate be securely pushed deeper than āhuacatl?
Not from the reviewed sources. The institutional dictionaries reach the Nahuatl word and its historical witnesses but do not establish a deeper lexical ancestor.
openprobableposition text
Did English algorism arrive through French or directly from Medieval Latin?
The sources preserve both channels. Merriam-Webster names Middle French and Medieval Latin; Etymonline emphasizes Old French from Medieval Latin.
openproposedposition text
Which Aboriginal language supplied boomerang?
Dharug bumarin and a Dharawal bou-mar-rang form are published candidates, but the Australian National Dictionary Centre says the exact source language remains uncertain.
openprobableposition text
What securely precedes Old English brȳd?
The sources publish broad Germanic comparanda, including Old High German brūt, but this dossier does not yet have a reviewed source that warrants one reconstructed parent.
openproposedposition text
Does the Éigse line certainly use cais once for love and once for hatred?
Not certainly. eDIL tentatively translates "mo chais is cais 'na agaid" as "my love ... is met by hatred(?)" and prints a question mark on the second reading.
CONTRARIAN TRUTHS / 12
RANK 2GRADE Aranked reveal
Truth began with firmness and fidelity.
Before truth centered factual correspondence, its family named what was firm, faithful, and steadfast.
RANK 3GRADE Acontrarian claim
Robot named forced labor before machinery.
The machine word begins in Czech robota: compulsory labor, corvée, or drudgery.
RANK 4GRADE Aranked reveal
Humility is an earth-and-lowness metaphor.
Latin humus “ground” produced humilis “low,” then humilitās “lowness,” before the moral virtue.
RANK 7GRADE Aranked reveal
Nice crossed from ignorance to approval.
Latin nescius “ignorant” became foolish or wanton, then fastidious and precise, and finally pleasant or kind.
RANK 8GRADE Aranked reveal
Etymology calls itself the “true account.”
Greek ἔτυμος “true, real” joined -λογία “account or study”; even that truth-word reaches a reconstructed root.
RANK 11GRADE Acontrarian claim
It was never humanity’s universal ancient name for spiritual practitioners.
English globalized a specific Evenki term through European scholarship and applied it to many unrelated traditions.
RANK 13GRADE Aranked reveal
Legislation came before legislate.
The noun preserves a Latin law-bearing or law-proposing compound. English legislate was later back-formed from the already existing noun family.
RANK 14GRADE Aranked reveal
Arithmetic put the “ithm” into algorithm without becoming its ancestor.
Arithmetic carries Greek arithmos “number.” Algorithm carries al-Khwārizmī's name; arithmos influenced its spelling, not its genealogy.
RANK 15GRADE Acontrarian claim
The modern stigma of Weib is not the timeless nature of wīb.
Duden marks modern Weib increasingly discriminatory, while Old High German records preserve wīb in old-woman and wife expressions; the deeper origin remains unresolved.
RANK 18GRADE Aranked reveal
The famous Gaulish ending is -rīx, not decorative -ix.
Cambridge identifies Gaulish -rix /-rīxs/ “king” inside Dumnorix and Vercingetorix and derives it from Proto-Celtic *rīx-s. The r belongs to the historical element; the exact force of that element still varies across individual names.
RANK 19GRADE Acontrarian claim
The x of rēx is a whole nominative sound change in one letter.
Latin starts from the bound stem rēg-, adds nominative -s, devoices g to k, and writes the resulting /ks/ as x. Genitive rēgis makes the stem visible—but it is a sibling case form, not an ancestor.
RANK 20GRADE Aranked reveal
King is a kin-word, not a royal word.
English king continues Old English cyning and Germanic *kuninga-, built on the kin or lineage base *kunja-. Latin rēx, royal, and regal belong to a different root—and even “leader of the kin” overstates the disputed original Germanic sense.
0412
BOOKS / DICTIONARIES / ARTICLES / DATABASES
SOURCES
community lexicon4 CLAIM LINKS
Hooghan — home or house
Navajo Word of the Day Editors / 2012
citation-key prefixAUDIT EVERY USE ↗historical dictionary91 CLAIM LINKS
Oxford English Dictionary — fiend, n., revised 2026
Oxford English Dictionary Editors / 2026
author or editorAUDIT EVERY USE ↗etymological dictionary88 CLAIM LINKS
Etymological Dictionary of Proto-Germanic — *fi(j)ēn- and *fi(j)and-
Guus Kroonen / 2013
source titleAUDIT EVERY USE ↗historical dictionary81 CLAIM LINKS
Oxford English Dictionary — friend, n. & adj.
Oxford English Dictionary editors / 2013
author or editorAUDIT EVERY USE ↗etymological dictionary80 CLAIM LINKS
A Handbook of Germanic Etymology — *xataz, *xatjanan, and *xatōjanan
Vladimir Orel / 2003
source titleAUDIT EVERY USE ↗historical dictionary75 CLAIM LINKS
Altsächsisches Wörterbuch — hatōn and hėttiand
Gerhard Köbler / 2014
publisherAUDIT EVERY USE ↗scholarly essay75 CLAIM LINKS
The shortest history of hatred continued and partly concluded
Anatoly Liberman / 2018
author or editorAUDIT EVERY USE ↗scholarly reference72 CLAIM LINKS
Indo-European Root reg-
Calvert Watkins and American Heritage Dictionary Editors / 2022
author or editorAUDIT EVERY USE ↗scholarly reference60 CLAIM LINKS
Indo-European Root: dhghem-
Calvert Watkins and American Heritage Dictionary Editors / 2022
author or editorAUDIT EVERY USE ↗scholarly reference48 CLAIM LINKS
Indo-European Root: dheigh-
Calvert Watkins and American Heritage Dictionary Editors / 2022
author or editorAUDIT EVERY USE ↗scholarly reference43 CLAIM LINKS
Indo-European Root deru-
Calvert Watkins and American Heritage Dictionary Editors / 2022
author or editorAUDIT EVERY USE ↗research database42 CLAIM LINKS
Lemma fijan — Gothic dictionary and 42-token candidate inventory
Project Wulfila editors · Wilhelm Streitberg / 2026
source titleAUDIT EVERY USE ↗0512
FIRST USES & HISTORICAL OBJECTS
ATTESTATION WITNESSES
DIRECTLY INSPECTEDmanuscript
Codex Argenteus, Luke 3:7
hatis / hatis / early 6th century
Codex Argenteus facsimile 157 — folio 129r, Luke 3:5–9witness excerpt / OPEN RECORD ↗DIRECTLY INSPECTEDmanuscript
Codex Argenteus, Luke 1:71
hatan / hatan / early 6th century
Codex Argenteus facsimile 145 — folio 123r, Luke 1:69–77witness excerpt / OPEN RECORD ↗DIRECTLY INSPECTEDmanuscript
Codex Argenteus, John 7:7
fijan / fijan / early 6th century
Codex Argenteus facsimile 57 — folio 33r, John 7:2–8witness excerpt / OPEN RECORD ↗DIRECTLY INSPECTEDmanuscript
Codex Argenteus, John 12:25
fijan / fijan / early 6th century
Codex Argenteus facsimile 96 — folio 76v, John 12:19–25witness excerpt / OPEN RECORD ↗DIRECTLY INSPECTEDmanuscript
Codex Argenteus, Luke 1:71
fijan / fijan / early 6th century
Codex Argenteus facsimile 145 — folio 123r, Luke 1:69–77witness excerpt / OPEN RECORD ↗DIRECTLY INSPECTEDmanuscript
Codex Argenteus, Matthew 5:43
fijands / fijands / early 6th century
Codex Argenteus facsimile 6 — folio 3v, Matthew 5:42–47witness excerpt / OPEN RECORD ↗DIRECTLY INSPECTEDmanuscript
Codex Argenteus, Matthew 10:36
fijands / fijands / early 6th century
Codex Argenteus facsimile 31 — folio 27r, Matthew 10:34–40witness excerpt / OPEN RECORD ↗DIRECTLY INSPECTEDmanuscript
Codex Argenteus, Luke 1:74
fijands / fijands / early 6th century
Codex Argenteus facsimile 145 — folio 123r, Luke 1:69–77witness excerpt / OPEN RECORD ↗DIRECTLY INSPECTEDmanuscript
Codex Argenteus, Luke 10:19
fijands / fijands / early 6th century
Codex Argenteus facsimile 228 — folio 164v, Luke 10:17–21witness excerpt / OPEN RECORD ↗DIRECTLY INSPECTEDmanuscript
Codex Argenteus, John 7:23
hatizōn / hatizōn / early 6th century
Codex Argenteus facsimile 60 — folio 94v, John 7:22–28witness excerpt / OPEN RECORD ↗DIRECTLY INSPECTEDmanuscript
Beowulf manuscript, Heorot filled with friends
frēond / frēond / late 10th or early 11th century
Cotton MS Vitellius A XV, folio 152r — Electronic Beowulf facsimilewitness excerpt / OPEN RECORD ↗DIRECTLY INSPECTEDprinted book
The first edition of the Académie française dictionary prints DESASTRE as a headword and defines it as a disastrous accident or misfortune.
désastre / disaster / 1694
Le dictionnaire de l'Académie française. Tome 1 (A–L), première éditionreporting source / OPEN RECORD ↗06
SEARCH IS DISCOVERY, NOT PROOF
EVERY RESULT OPENS A PERMANENT EVIDENCE RECORD.
Matching text only locates a record. It does not raise confidence, settle a dispute, establish cognacy, or turn a source report into direct inspection. Follow the result into its citations and editorial limits.