SEARCH THE GRAPH.

RaEnglish (en) · Etymology 1Source text

Conventional Egyptological pronunciation (not to be confused with reconstructed pronunciations) of Egyptian r:a-ra (rꜥ, “the sun; Ra”).

RaEnglish (en) · Etymology 3Source text

Borrowed from Fijian Ra.

RaEnglish (en) · Etymology 4Source text

Abbreviation.

Browse the independently attributed sources →

INDEPENDENT SOURCE LIBRARY

More sources for this spelling

These are spelling matches, not a claim of identical senses or agreement. Historical accounts retain their own editions and limits; none is automatically promoted into reviewed ancestry.

Mayhew–Skeat (1888)

1888; pinned HTML transcription updated October 28, 2024

RaMiddle English · word_ra
Ra, sb. roe, deer, CM; see Roo.
Read the full source record →

72REVIEWED RESULTS

12WORD DOSSIERS

12HISTORICAL NODES

12SOURCES

24CLAIMS

12WITNESSES

MODERN ENTRY POINTS

WORD DOSSIERS

noun combining formcontrarian claim

-logy

A bound English word element used in formations involving discourse or expression and in names of doctrines, theories, sciences, and fields of study.

onomastic compound elementcontrarian claim

-rīx

An attested Gaulish second member meaning “king” or “prince,” visible in compound personal names such as Dumnorix and Vercingetorix and inherited from Proto-Celtic *rīx-s.

December

The twelfth month in the modern calendar; its inherited Latin name literally identifies it as the tenth month.

German masculine noundossier summary

The modern German noun for a personal, political, military, or ideological enemy or opponent. Duden derives it through Middle High German vīnt or vīant and Old High German fīand, literally the hating one; DWDS dates Old High German fīant and fījant to the eighth century and identifies the Germanic ancestor as a petrified substantivized present participle. Grimm’s dictionary independently compares Gothic fijands, Old English fēond, English fiend, Dutch vijand, and Nordic forms, while warning that its own still-deeper foam hypothesis required confirmation. The reviewed route therefore follows the inherited enemy noun to reconstructed *fi(j)and- and *fi(j)ēn-, then treats *peh₁- as proposed and stops.

German masculine nouncontrarian claim

Freund

German Freund continues Middle High German vriunt and Old High German friunt. DWDS/Pfeifer, Duden, and Grimm independently analyze the inherited Germanic formation as a substantivized present participle of the verb represented by Gothic frijōn and Old English frēogan: historically a loving or favorably disposed one. The record is semantically wider than a modern close companion: the historical dictionaries also document neighbor, relative, lover, ally, supporter, patron, address, and euphemistic uses. The graph joins the High German line to the same reviewed *frijōnd- and *frī- nodes as English friend, keeps *prī- proposed, and stops.

German masculine noundossier summary

Hass

The modern German noun for intense aversion, rejection, or hostility toward a person, group, or institution. Duden traces Middle and Old High German haʒ to suffering, sorrow, and resentment and records the 1996 spelling change from Haß to Hass. DWDS/Pfeifer reports the Old High German noun from the eighth century and places it in the Germanic family of Old Saxon heti, Old English hete, Old Norse hatr, Gothic hatis, and related forms. Grimm’s DWB preserves a more complicated semantic record: hostile pursuit or action, anger expressed in deeds, ordinary hostile disposition, and even measured rivalry during friendly competition. The reviewed route reuses *hatiz- and the qualified *ḱh₂d-es- / *ḱeh₂d- comparison, then stops.

Liebe

The German noun for love, inherited through Middle and Old High German and a Germanic abstract-noun formation distinct from the immediate noun ancestry of English love.

adverb

A grammatical class commonly modifying verbs, adjectives, other adverbs, phrases, clauses, or sentences; the English term continues Latin adverbium.

nouncontrarian claim

aguacate

The Spanish word for the avocado tree and fruit, borrowed from Nahuatl āhuacatl, whose historical records include both fruit and testicle senses.

nouncontrarian claim

algebra

A mathematical discipline whose English name travels through Medieval Latin from Arabic al-jabr, restoration or completion.

algorism

The older English word for calculation with Hindu-Arabic numerals, transmitted through French and Medieval Latin from the name al-Khwārizmī.

nouncontrarian claim

algorithm

A finite or stepwise procedure, descended through medieval arithmetic vocabulary from the Latinized name of al-Khwārizmī.

Old English / Indo-European

ATTESTED / RECONSTRUCTED / BOUNDARY

HISTORICAL FORMS

●

-ræden

condition, state, estimation, rule, or relation to the first compound element

DATE: Old English
MATCH: historical-form prefix
DOSSIERS: 0

Middle Chinese (reconstructed reading) / Sino-Tibetan

*dhigh-ūrā-

result of forming or kneading

DATE: Proto-Indo-European suffixed zero-grade formation
MATCH: gloss
DOSSIERS: 1

*drae

tea; name of a plant

DATE: Middle Chinese reconstruction
MATCH: transliteration
DOSSIERS: 5

Proto-Germanic / Indo-European

*drew-o-

firm or steadfast formation; wood or pledge branch

DATE: Proto-Indo-European suffixed variant
MATCH: gloss
DOSSIERS: 2

*frijōnd-

a reconstructed present-participial formation, the loving or favorably disposed one

DATE: normalized Proto-Germanic participial formation
MATCH: gloss
DOSSIERS: 5

Proto-Germanic / Indo-European

*gastiz

guest or stranger

DATE: Proto-Germanic prehistory
MATCH: gloss
DOSSIERS: 1

*ghos-ti-

stranger, guest, host; person with reciprocal duties of hospitality

DATE: Proto-Indo-European prehistory
MATCH: gloss
DOSSIERS: 9

*gn̥ə-yo-

generation, lineage, or kin formation

DATE: Proto-Indo-European suffixed zero grade
MATCH: gloss
DOSSIERS: 3

*h₃reg-

move in a straight line; direct, lead, rule

DATE: Proto-Indo-European centum form
MATCH: gloss
DOSSIERS: 13

*h₃reg̑-

move in a straight line; direct, lead, rule

DATE: oldest published Proto-Indo-European form
MATCH: gloss
DOSSIERS: 13

*h₃órbʰos

person or property transferred; bereaved person, orphan, or dependent

DATE: Proto-Indo-European prehistory
MATCH: gloss
DOSSIERS: 1

3 CITATIONS / AUDIT ↗-logy DOSSIER ↗

*kad-

a proposed base used in a wider Celtic, Germanic, Italic, Iranian, and Greek comparison

DATE: proposed Proto-Indo-European base
MATCH: gloss
DOSSIERS: 1

WHERE INTERPRETATION IS TESTED

CLAIMS & DISPUTES

SCHOLARLY DISPUTES / 12

openproposedposition text

Is the deepest root leǵ- or sleǵ-?

The traditional *leǵ- reconstruction remains widely represented, while published scholarship argues that the gather or collect root began with *s. The graph preserves both analyses.

openprobableposition text

Did English receive December through Old English or French?

The reviewed source allows either Old English or Anglo-French transmission from Latin and does not choose between them.

1 CITATIONS / AUDIT ↗December DOSSIER ↗

openprobableposition text

Is the exact phonetic shape of *fi(j)and- directly known?

No. The form is a comparative reconstruction. Optional j notation, branch vowels, and the relation of written historical variants require analysis rather than direct Proto-Germanic observation.

2 CITATIONS / AUDIT ↗Feind DOSSIER ↗

openprobableposition text

Can the lexicalization of one who hates as enemy be dated to one exact event?

No unique event is known. Cross-branch evidence places it before the recorded daughter languages, but no text records the prehistoric lexicalization moment.

2 CITATIONS / AUDIT ↗Feind DOSSIER ↗

openprobableposition text

Can the exact Proto-Germanic pronunciation and paradigm be recovered?

Not completely. Comparative forms support the morphology, but no recording or written Proto-Germanic paradigm survives.

1 CITATIONS / AUDIT ↗Freund DOSSIER ↗

openprobableposition text

Was the relative sense inherited or independently strengthened in Germanic branches?

The sources establish the sense across German and Nordic evidence but do not recover one complete prehistoric semantic tree.

1 CITATIONS / AUDIT ↗Freund DOSSIER ↗

openprobableposition text

Does Hass securely descend from *ḱeh₂d-?

Only as a qualified proposal. Formal correspondence is published, but the semantic chain through grief, care, pain, pursuit, and hatred is not transparent.

2 CITATIONS / AUDIT ↗Hass DOSSIER ↗

openprobableposition text

Did English algorism arrive through French or directly from Medieval Latin?

The sources preserve both channels. Merriam-Webster names Middle French and Medieval Latin; Etymonline emphasizes Old French from Medieval Latin.

2 CITATIONS / AUDIT ↗algorism DOSSIER ↗

openproposedposition text

Is Choctaw bayuk a securely attested source of bayou?

No. An early Choctaw *bayok is plausible and accepted in a major handbook, but later bayuk is not securely attested and contraction to bók was conjectural.

2 CITATIONS / AUDIT ↗bayou DOSSIER ↗

openprobableposition text

Is betroth built on truth or troth?

The historical base is Middle English trouth or trouthe, where the modern truth and troth spellings were not yet cleanly separated; mapping it to only one modern headword overstates the evidence.

2 CITATIONS / AUDIT ↗betroth DOSSIER ↗

openproposedposition text

Which Aboriginal language supplied boomerang?

Dharug bumarin and a Dharawal bou-mar-rang form are published candidates, but the Australian National Dictionary Centre says the exact source language remains uncertain.

3 CITATIONS / AUDIT ↗boomerang DOSSIER ↗

openproposedposition text

Does boy securely descend from a word for ox hide?

No. American Heritage offers a possible chain through a fettered person, fetter, Latin restraint collar, and Greek ox hide; Oxford labels the origin unknown.

2 CITATIONS / AUDIT ↗boy DOSSIER ↗

CONTRARIAN TRUTHS / 12

RANK 1GRADE Acontrarian claim

A stranger became both guest and enemy.

The reciprocal outsider behind guest and host also became Latin hostis, “enemy.”

2 CITATIONS / AUDIT ↗hostile DOSSIER ↗

RANK 2GRADE Aranked reveal

Truth began with firmness and fidelity.

Before truth centered factual correspondence, its family named what was firm, faithful, and steadfast.

2 CITATIONS / AUDIT ↗truth DOSSIER ↗

RANK 4GRADE Aranked reveal

Humility is an earth-and-lowness metaphor.

Latin humus “ground” produced humilis “low,” then humilitās “lowness,” before the moral virtue.

3 CITATIONS / AUDIT ↗humility DOSSIER ↗

RANK 5GRADE Aranked reveal

Calculation began with a pebble in the hand.

Latin calculus was a small stone used for reckoning before calculation became abstract.

2 CITATIONS / AUDIT ↗calculate DOSSIER ↗

RANK 7GRADE Acontrarian claim

Nice crossed from ignorance to approval.

Latin nescius “ignorant” became foolish or wanton, then fastidious and precise, and finally pleasant or kind.

2 CITATIONS / AUDIT ↗nice DOSSIER ↗

RANK 9GRADE Aranked reveal

The most repeated origin story is not the most rigorous answer.

Mapuche ancestry is a serious, evidenced proposal—but current RAE and a historical Spanish argument keep the deeper source genuinely open.

3 CITATIONS / AUDIT ↗poncho DOSSIER ↗

RANK 10GRADE Aranked reveal

Andean neighbors need not be linguistic cousins.

Alpaca comes from Aymara while llama comes from Quechua: the words travel through Spanish from different families.

4 CITATIONS / AUDIT ↗alpaca DOSSIER ↗

RANK 11GRADE Acontrarian claim

It was never humanity’s universal ancient name for spiritual practitioners.

English globalized a specific Evenki term through European scholarship and applied it to many unrelated traditions.

3 CITATIONS / AUDIT ↗shaman DOSSIER ↗

RANK 13GRADE Aranked reveal

Legislation came before legislate.

The noun preserves a Latin law-bearing or law-proposing compound. English legislate was later back-formed from the already existing noun family.

4 CITATIONS / AUDIT ↗legislation DOSSIER ↗

RANK 16GRADE Aranked reveal

Humiliation is evidenced in English before humiliate.

Chaucer’s Middle English humiliacioun occurs in a humility passage; Merriam-Webster reports the English verb humiliate only circa 1534. Christian Latin and French preserve lowering, abasement, mortification, and self-humbling before current definitions center degradation, disgrace, and shame.

4 CITATIONS / AUDIT ↗humiliation DOSSIER ↗

RANK 17GRADE Aranked reveal

-logy never simply meant “the study of.”

The bound form’s recorded range includes expression and discourse as well as doctrine, theory, science, and study. Its trail reaches Greek logos—word, speech, account, reckoning, reason—rather than a prehistoric word meaning “science.”

4 CITATIONS / AUDIT ↗-logy DOSSIER ↗

RANK 18GRADE Acontrarian claim

The famous Gaulish ending is -rīx, not decorative -ix.

Cambridge identifies Gaulish -rix /-rīxs/ “king” inside Dumnorix and Vercingetorix and derives it from Proto-Celtic *rīx-s. The r belongs to the historical element; the exact force of that element still varies across individual names.

3 CITATIONS / AUDIT ↗-rīx DOSSIER ↗

BOOKS / DICTIONARIES / ARTICLES / DATABASES

SOURCES

historical dictionary9 CLAIM LINKS

Aguacate — Diccionario de la lengua española

Real Academia Española · Asociación de Academias de la Lengua Española / 2024

historical dictionary5 CLAIM LINKS

Poncho — Diccionario de la lengua española

Real Academia Española and ASALE Editors / 2026

historical dictionary4 CLAIM LINKS

Hamaca — Diccionario de la lengua española

Real Academia Española · Asociación de Academias de la Lengua Española / 2024

historical dictionary4 CLAIM LINKS

Llama — Diccionario de la lengua española

Real Academia Española and ASALE Editors / 2026

historical dictionary3 CLAIM LINKS

Alpaca — Diccionario de la lengua española

Real Academia Española and ASALE Editors / 2026

historical dictionary2 CLAIM LINKS

Raja — American Heritage Dictionary and Word History

American Heritage Dictionary Editors / 2022

title prefixAUDIT EVERY USE ↗

historical dictionary0 CLAIM LINKS

Raja — Definition, Word History, and First Known Use

Merriam-Webster Editors / 2026

title prefixAUDIT EVERY USE ↗

research article59 CLAIM LINKS

On the syntax of the Agent nouns in Gothic: the case of nd-formations

Daniel Ayora Estevan / 2023

author or editorAUDIT EVERY USE ↗

historical dictionary32 CLAIM LINKS

Deutsches Wörterbuch von Jacob Grimm und Wilhelm Grimm — hassen

Jacob Grimm · Wilhelm Grimm · DWDS editorial team / 2026

publisherAUDIT EVERY USE ↗

etymological dictionary31 CLAIM LINKS

Etymologisch Woordenboek van het Nederlands — vijand

Marlies Philippa · Frans Debrabandere · Arend Quak · Tanneke Schoonheim · Nicoline van der Sijs / 2009

author or editorAUDIT EVERY USE ↗

etymological dictionary29 CLAIM LINKS

DWDS — Feind, etymology after Wolfgang Pfeifer

Wolfgang Pfeifer · DWDS editorial team / 2026

publisherAUDIT EVERY USE ↗

etymological dictionary29 CLAIM LINKS

DWDS — Hass, etymology after Wolfgang Pfeifer

Wolfgang Pfeifer · DWDS editorial team / 2026

publisherAUDIT EVERY USE ↗

FIRST USES & HISTORICAL OBJECTS

ATTESTATION WITNESSES

SOURCE REPORTEDlexical corpus record

Ragnars saga loðbrókar

hata / hata / NKS 1824 b 4° manuscript c1400-1425; source-reported

ONP citation — hata in Ragnars saga loðbrókar 136witness-title prefix / OPEN RECORD ↗

Codex Argenteus facsimile 157 — folio 129r, Luke 3:5–9witness excerpt / OPEN RECORD ↗

Codex Argenteus, Luke 3:7

hatis / hatis / early 6th century

Codex Argenteus facsimile 145 — folio 123r, Luke 1:69–77witness excerpt / OPEN RECORD ↗

Codex Argenteus, Luke 1:71

hatan / hatan / early 6th century

Codex Argenteus facsimile 145 — folio 123r, Luke 1:69–77witness excerpt / OPEN RECORD ↗

Codex Argenteus, Luke 1:71

fijan / fijan / early 6th century

Codex Argenteus facsimile 6 — folio 3v, Matthew 5:42–47witness excerpt / OPEN RECORD ↗

Codex Argenteus, Matthew 5:44

fijands / fijands / early 6th century

Codex Argenteus facsimile 145 — folio 123r, Luke 1:69–77witness excerpt / OPEN RECORD ↗

Codex Argenteus, Luke 1:74

fijands / fijands / early 6th century

AM 674 a 4°, Bókin dýra — manuscript record and imagesreporting source / OPEN RECORD ↗

Bókin dýra, Elucidarius

hatr / hatr / c.1150-1200

Le dictionnaire de l'Académie française. Tome 1 (A–L), première éditionreporting source / OPEN RECORD ↗

The first edition of the Académie française dictionary prints DESASTRE as a headword and defines it as a disastrous accident or misfortune.

désastre / disaster / 1694

Le dictionnaire de l'Académie française. Tome 1 (A–L), première éditionwitness excerpt / OPEN RECORD ↗

The first edition of the Académie française dictionary prints HOSTEL as a headword in the historical French family later normalized as hôtel.

hôtel / hotel / 1694

Le dictionnaire de l'Académie française. Tome 2 (M–Z), première éditionwitness excerpt / OPEN RECORD ↗

The PESTE entry in the first edition of the Académie française dictionary uses quarantaine for imposed isolation after travel from a place suspected of plague.

quarantaine / quarantine / 1694

Le dictionnaire de l'Académie française. Tome 2 (M–Z), première éditionwitness excerpt / OPEN RECORD ↗

The first edition of the Académie française dictionary prints SINCERE as a headword and opens with the senses true and frank.

sincère / sincere / 1694