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THE GRAPH.
Find a modern word—or search sideways through reconstructed roots, historical forms, meanings, languages, scholars, sources, claims, disputes, and witnesses.
WIKTIONARY VIA KAIKKI / WIKTEXTRACT
Imported dictionary evidence
These are source reports, not reviewed *SET-U ancestry. A list of templates or numbered etymologies is not an ancestor chain. Scholarly disagreements remain in the original source text.
35,981 English word records · 45,491 etymology sections in this online subset
PARTIAL ENGLISH COVERAGE · FULL CORPUS REMAINS LOCAL3 source sections across 2 headwords matching “st”. These are separate from the reviewed results below.
stEnglish (en) · Etymology 1Source text
Imitative. Compare hist.
Original Wiktionary entry and references ↗stEnglish (en) · Etymology 2Source text
Abbreviations.
Original Wiktionary entry and references ↗STEnglish (en) · Unnumbered etymologySource text
This section has no extracted narrative. Its source may contain templates or descendants; no ancestry has been inferred from them here.
Original Wiktionary entry and references ↗INDEPENDENT SOURCE LIBRARY
More sources for this spelling
These are spelling matches, not a claim of identical senses or agreement. Historical accounts retain their own editions and limits; none is automatically promoted into reviewed ancestry.
Lewis’s Elementary Latin Dictionary
1890 American Book Company edition; pinned Perseus XML digitization0112
MODERN ENTRY POINTS
WORD DOSSIERS
adjective · adverbheadword prefix
ստոյգ
The classical Armenian word for true, certain, real, or genuine, compared by Indo-European etymologists with the Greek true-word family.
OPEN THE FULL LINEAGE ↗nounhistorical-form prefix
sauna
The English name of a Finnish steam bath, borrowed from Finnish sauna; its deeper Finnic history is secure enough to reconstruct, while a proposed ancient Germanic source remains actively qualified.
OPEN THE FULL LINEAGE ↗noun combining formcontrarian claim
-logy
A bound English word element used in formations involving discourse or expression and in names of doctrines, theories, sciences, and fields of study.
OPEN THE FULL LINEAGE ↗onomastic compound elementdossier summary
-rīx
An attested Gaulish second member meaning “king” or “prince,” visible in compound personal names such as Dumnorix and Vercingetorix and inherited from Proto-Celtic *rīx-s.
OPEN THE FULL LINEAGE ↗nounhistorical form
December
The twelfth month in the modern calendar; its inherited Latin name literally identifies it as the tenth month.
OPEN THE FULL LINEAGE ↗German masculine noundossier summary
Feind
The modern German noun for a personal, political, military, or ideological enemy or opponent. Duden derives it through Middle High German vīnt or vīant and Old High German fīand, literally the hating one; DWDS dates Old High German fīant and fījant to the eighth century and identifies the Germanic ancestor as a petrified substantivized present participle. Grimm’s dictionary independently compares Gothic fijands, Old English fēond, English fiend, Dutch vijand, and Nordic forms, while warning that its own still-deeper foam hypothesis required confirmation. The reviewed route therefore follows the inherited enemy noun to reconstructed *fi(j)and- and *fi(j)ēn-, then treats *peh₁- as proposed and stops.
OPEN THE FULL LINEAGE ↗German masculine noundossier summary
Freund
German Freund continues Middle High German vriunt and Old High German friunt. DWDS/Pfeifer, Duden, and Grimm independently analyze the inherited Germanic formation as a substantivized present participle of the verb represented by Gothic frijōn and Old English frēogan: historically a loving or favorably disposed one. The record is semantically wider than a modern close companion: the historical dictionaries also document neighbor, relative, lover, ally, supporter, patron, address, and euphemistic uses. The graph joins the High German line to the same reviewed *frijōnd- and *frī- nodes as English friend, keeps *prī- proposed, and stops.
OPEN THE FULL LINEAGE ↗German masculine nouncontrarian claim
Hass
The modern German noun for intense aversion, rejection, or hostility toward a person, group, or institution. Duden traces Middle and Old High German haʒ to suffering, sorrow, and resentment and records the 1996 spelling change from Haß to Hass. DWDS/Pfeifer reports the Old High German noun from the eighth century and places it in the Germanic family of Old Saxon heti, Old English hete, Old Norse hatr, Gothic hatis, and related forms. Grimm’s DWB preserves a more complicated semantic record: hostile pursuit or action, anger expressed in deeds, ordinary hostile disposition, and even measured rivalry during friendly competition. The reviewed route reuses *hatiz- and the qualified *ḱh₂d-es- / *ḱeh₂d- comparison, then stops.
OPEN THE FULL LINEAGE ↗noundossier summary
Liebe
The German noun for love, inherited through Middle and Old High German and a Germanic abstract-noun formation distinct from the immediate noun ancestry of English love.
OPEN THE FULL LINEAGE ↗nounhistorical form
adverb
A grammatical class commonly modifying verbs, adjectives, other adverbs, phrases, clauses, or sentences; the English term continues Latin adverbium.
OPEN THE FULL LINEAGE ↗nouncontrarian claim
aguacate
The Spanish word for the avocado tree and fruit, borrowed from Nahuatl āhuacatl, whose historical records include both fruit and testicle senses.
OPEN THE FULL LINEAGE ↗nouncontrarian claim
algebra
A mathematical discipline whose English name travels through Medieval Latin from Arabic al-jabr, restoration or completion.
OPEN THE FULL LINEAGE ↗0212
ATTESTED / RECONSTRUCTED / BOUNDARY
HISTORICAL FORMS
*
Palaeo-Germanic / Indo-European
*stagh-ná-
pile or stack; proposed source of a stone-pile stove term
- DATE
- Palaeo-Germanic reconstruction
- MATCH
- historical-form prefix
- DOSSIERS
- 1
Proto-Indo-European / Indo-European
*stéu-gho-
real; certain
- DATE
- Proto-Indo-European Armenian preform, proposed
- MATCH
- historical-form prefix
- DOSSIERS
- 1
Armenian / Indo-European
ստոյգ
stoygtrue, just, certain, sure, real, authentic
- DATE
- Classical Armenian record–later Armenian
- MATCH
- historical-form prefix
- DOSSIERS
- 1
Proto-Indo-European / Indo-European
*bheuhₓ-
to be; exist; grow
- DATE
- oldest Proto-Indo-European form
- MATCH
- gloss
- DOSSIERS
- 1
Proto-Indo-European / Indo-European
*bheuə-
to be; exist; grow
- DATE
- Proto-Indo-European root
- MATCH
- gloss
- DOSSIERS
- 1
Proto-Indo-European / Indo-European
*deru-
*deru- / *dreu-be firm, solid, steadfast; wood, tree
- DATE
- Proto-Indo-European horizon
- MATCH
- gloss
- DOSSIERS
- 7
Proto-Indo-European / Indo-European
*dheig̑h-
to form; build
- DATE
- oldest Proto-Indo-European form
- MATCH
- gloss
- DOSSIERS
- 5
Proto-Indo-European / Indo-European
*dhg̑hem-
earth
- DATE
- oldest Proto-Indo-European form
- MATCH
- gloss
- DOSSIERS
- 5
Middle Chinese (reconstructed reading) / Sino-Tibetan
*drae
tea; name of a plant
- DATE
- Middle Chinese reconstruction
- MATCH
- language
- DOSSIERS
- 5
Proto-Indo-European / Indo-European
*drew-o-
firm or steadfast formation; wood or pledge branch
- DATE
- Proto-Indo-European suffixed variant
- MATCH
- gloss
- DOSSIERS
- 2
Proto-Germanic / Indo-European
*fi(j)ēn-
a reconstructed verb meaning hate or be hostile toward
- DATE
- Proto-Germanic reconstruction
- MATCH
- gloss
- DOSSIERS
- 14
Proto-Germanic / Indo-European
*frijōnd-
a reconstructed present-participial formation, the loving or favorably disposed one
- DATE
- normalized Proto-Germanic participial formation
- MATCH
- gloss
- DOSSIERS
- 5
0324
WHERE INTERPRETATION IS TESTED
CLAIMS & DISPUTES
SCHOLARLY DISPUTES / 12
openproposedword prefix
Is Armenian ստոյգ an uncontested cognate of ἔτυμος and ἐτεός?
It is a published comparison that strengthens the *set-u- analysis, but the exact Armenian preform and common-base morphology remain proposed.
resolvedestablishedword prefix
Is classical ստոյգ identical to the modern written form?
The lexeme continues, but modern Eastern Armenian normally writes ստույգ; the dossier displays the classical form because that is the comparative form in the historical literature.
openproposedposition text
Is the deepest root *leǵ- or *sleǵ-?
The traditional *leǵ- reconstruction remains widely represented, while published scholarship argues that the gather or collect root began with *s. The graph preserves both analyses.
openprobableposition text
Did -rīx mean exactly “king” in every compound name?
Not necessarily. The king or prince value is secure for the element, but scholarship distinguishes names where it is determinative from analyses in which it is semantically bleached or intensifying. Each host therefore requires its own compositional claim.
openprobableposition text
Is the exact phonetic shape of *fi(j)and- directly known?
No. The form is a comparative reconstruction. Optional j notation, branch vowels, and the relation of written historical variants require analysis rather than direct Proto-Germanic observation.
openproposedposition text
Is the deepest *peh₁- route established?
No. The Germanic verb and lexicalized agent formation are firmer than the proposed Indo-European comparison, whose formal intermediates and semantic unity remain reconstructive.
openprobableposition text
Can the lexicalization of one who hates as enemy be dated to one exact event?
No unique event is known. Cross-branch evidence places it before the recorded daughter languages, but no text records the prehistoric lexicalization moment.
openprobableposition text
Can the exact lexicalization date of the loving participle be known?
No. The formation predates the daughter-language records and is already nominal in the earliest High German evidence.
openprobableposition text
Was the relative sense inherited or independently strengthened in Germanic branches?
The sources establish the sense across German and Nordic evidence but do not recover one complete prehistoric semantic tree.
openproposedposition text
Was the original meaning hostile pursuit or suffering and sorrow?
Unresolved. DWB argues for hostile pursuit or persecution as the original center; Duden glosses the origin as suffering, sorrow, and resentment; DWDS foregrounds hostile disposition, resentment, and enmity.
openprobableposition text
Is the exact Proto-Germanic noun *hatiz- or *hataz?
The noun is reconstructed, and published notation reflects stem alternation and analytical choices. Koch prints *hataz ~ *hatiz- while Merriam-Webster foregrounds *hatiz-.
openproposedposition text
Do Celtic cais and Greek κῆδος prove that love and hate share one root?
No. They belong to a disputed wider comparison. Middle Irish cais carries a striking love-and-hatred field, but that does not make German Liebe an ancestor or cognate of Hass.
CONTRARIAN TRUTHS / 12
RANK 1GRADE Acontrarian claim
A stranger became both guest and enemy.
The reciprocal outsider behind guest and host also became Latin hostis, “enemy.”
RANK 2GRADE Aranked reveal
Truth began with firmness and fidelity.
Before truth centered factual correspondence, its family named what was firm, faithful, and steadfast.
RANK 4GRADE Aranked reveal
Humility is an earth-and-lowness metaphor.
Latin humus “ground” produced humilis “low,” then humilitās “lowness,” before the moral virtue.
RANK 5GRADE Aranked reveal
Calculation began with a pebble in the hand.
Latin calculus was a small stone used for reckoning before calculation became abstract.
RANK 6GRADE Aranked reveal
Evidence became a thread you could follow.
Old English cliewen was a ball of thread; the labyrinth metaphor turned it into guidance through uncertainty.
RANK 7GRADE Aranked reveal
Nice crossed from ignorance to approval.
Latin nescius “ignorant” became foolish or wanton, then fastidious and precise, and finally pleasant or kind.
RANK 8GRADE Aranked reveal
Etymology calls itself the “true account.”
Greek ἔτυμος “true, real” joined -λογία “account or study”; even that truth-word reaches a reconstructed root.
RANK 9GRADE Acontrarian claim
The most repeated origin story is not the most rigorous answer.
Mapuche ancestry is a serious, evidenced proposal—but current RAE and a historical Spanish argument keep the deeper source genuinely open.
RANK 10GRADE Acontrarian claim
Andean neighbors need not be linguistic cousins.
Alpaca comes from Aymara while llama comes from Quechua: the words travel through Spanish from different families.
RANK 11GRADE Aranked reveal
It was never humanity’s universal ancient name for spiritual practitioners.
English globalized a specific Evenki term through European scholarship and applied it to many unrelated traditions.
RANK 12GRADE Aranked reveal
A Turkish word is not proof of who invented the food.
English yogurt is Turkish yoğurt, probably related to yoğur- “knead”; the origin of fermented milk is a different historical question.
RANK 13GRADE Aranked reveal
Legislation came before legislate.
The noun preserves a Latin law-bearing or law-proposing compound. English legislate was later back-formed from the already existing noun family.
0412
BOOKS / DICTIONARIES / ARTICLES / DATABASES
SOURCES
research article17 CLAIM LINKS
Notes on Gothic Forms — Hatan : hatjan “to hate”
Albert Morey Sturtevant / 1954
citation-key prefixAUDIT EVERY USE ↗comparative database12 CLAIM LINKS
Proto-Germanic *xatiz, *xatōn-, -ēn- and *xatjan-
StarLing database editors
citation-key prefixAUDIT EVERY USE ↗historical dictionary10 CLAIM LINKS
Die gotische Bibel — Wörterbuch entry hatis
Wilhelm Streitberg / 1910
citation-key prefixAUDIT EVERY USE ↗historical dictionary2 CLAIM LINKS
Die gotische Bibel — Wörterbuch entries fijan, fian, and fijands
Wilhelm Streitberg / 1910
citation-key prefixAUDIT EVERY USE ↗historical dictionary1 CLAIM LINKS
Die gotische Bibel — Wörterbuch entry hatan
Wilhelm Streitberg / 1910
citation-key prefixAUDIT EVERY USE ↗historical dictionary102 CLAIM LINKS
Hate — definition, etymology, and first known use
Merriam-Webster Editors / 2026
author or editorAUDIT EVERY USE ↗scholarly essay75 CLAIM LINKS
The shortest history of hatred continued and partly concluded
Anatoly Liberman / 2018
source titleAUDIT EVERY USE ↗research article59 CLAIM LINKS
On the syntax of the Agent nouns in Gothic: the case of nd-formations
Daniel Ayora Estevan / 2023
author or editorAUDIT EVERY USE ↗historical dictionary48 CLAIM LINKS
Oudnederlands Woordenboek — fīunt
Instituut voor de Nederlandse Taal editorial team / 2009
author or editorAUDIT EVERY USE ↗research database42 CLAIM LINKS
Lemma fijan — Gothic dictionary and 42-token candidate inventory
Project Wulfila editors · Wilhelm Streitberg / 2026
author or editorAUDIT EVERY USE ↗research monograph38 CLAIM LINKS
Celto-Germanic — HATRED *kad-
John T. Koch / 2020
publisherAUDIT EVERY USE ↗historical dictionary35 CLAIM LINKS
Bosworth–Toller Anglo-Saxon Dictionary — FEÓGAN
Joseph Bosworth · Thomas Northcote Toller · Christ Sean · Ondřej Tichý / 2014
author or editorAUDIT EVERY USE ↗0512
FIRST USES & HISTORICAL OBJECTS
ATTESTATION WITNESSES
SOURCE REPORTEDlexical corpus record
Strong-aversion construction
hassen / hassen / contemporary dictionary example, source-reported
Duden — hassenwitness-title prefix / OPEN RECORD ↗DIRECTLY INSPECTEDmanuscript
Heliand manuscript M, arrest scene
hatan / hatōn / Heliand composition circa 830–840; Munich manuscript second half of the ninth century
Heliand — BSB Cgm 25, scan 142, hatandiero locusreporting source / OPEN RECORD ↗DIRECTLY INSPECTEDmanuscript
Heliand manuscript M, Pilate question
hōti / hōti / Heliand composition circa 830–840; Munich manuscript second half of the ninth century
Heliand — BSB Cgm 25, scan 150, hotie locusreporting source / OPEN RECORD ↗DIRECTLY INSPECTEDmanuscript
Beowulf manuscript, foe’s footprint
fēond / fēond / late 10th or early 11th century
Cotton MS Vitellius A XV, folio 180v — Electronic Beowulf facsimilewitness excerpt / OPEN RECORD ↗DIRECTLY INSPECTEDprinted book
The first edition of the Académie française dictionary prints DESASTRE as a headword and defines it as a disastrous accident or misfortune.
désastre / disaster / 1694
Le dictionnaire de l'Académie française. Tome 1 (A–L), première éditionwitness excerpt / OPEN RECORD ↗DIRECTLY INSPECTEDprinted book
The first edition of the Académie française dictionary prints HOSTEL as a headword in the historical French family later normalized as hôtel.
hôtel / hotel / 1694
Le dictionnaire de l'Académie française. Tome 1 (A–L), première éditionwitness excerpt / OPEN RECORD ↗DIRECTLY INSPECTEDprinted book
The PESTE entry in the first edition of the Académie française dictionary uses quarantaine for imposed isolation after travel from a place suspected of plague.
quarantaine / quarantine / 1694
Le dictionnaire de l'Académie française. Tome 2 (M–Z), première éditionwitness excerpt / OPEN RECORD ↗DIRECTLY INSPECTEDprinted book
The first edition of the Académie française dictionary prints SINCERE as a headword and opens with the senses true and frank.
sincère / sincere / 1694
Le dictionnaire de l'Académie française. Tome 2 (M–Z), première éditionwitness excerpt / OPEN RECORD ↗DIRECTLY INSPECTEDprinted book
The e-rara object record and searchable scan locate John Harris's dictionary definition of algorithm.
algorithm / algorithm / 1704
Lexicon technicum: or, an universal English dictionary of arts and scienceswitness excerpt / OPEN RECORD ↗DIRECTLY INSPECTEDprinted book
The CHIMES entry in John Harris’s Lexicon technicum uses calculate in instructions about clock-chime numbers.
calculate / calculate / 1704
Lexicon technicum: or, an universal English dictionary of arts and sciencesreporting source / OPEN RECORD ↗DIRECTLY INSPECTEDprinted book
John Harris’s Lexicon technicum prints MUSCLE as a headword and defines its role in voluntary animal motion.
muscle / muscle / 1704
Lexicon technicum: or, an universal English dictionary of arts and scienceswitness excerpt / OPEN RECORD ↗DIRECTLY INSPECTEDprinted book
John Harris’s Lexicon technicum prints ETYMOLOGY as a headword and defines it as the part of grammar concerned with words’ origins and true signification.
etymology / etymology / 1704
Lexicon technicum: or, an universal English dictionary of arts and scienceswitness excerpt / OPEN RECORD ↗06
SEARCH IS DISCOVERY, NOT PROOF
EVERY RESULT OPENS A PERMANENT EVIDENCE RECORD.
Matching text only locates a record. It does not raise confidence, settle a dispute, establish cognacy, or turn a source report into direct inspection. Follow the result into its citations and editorial limits.