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adverb

A grammatical class commonly modifying verbs, adjectives, other adverbs, phrases, clauses, or sentences; the English term continues Latin adverbium.

proverb

A brief traditional saying or maxim; English received the word through Anglo-French from Latin proverbium.

verb

A grammatical word class expressing action, occurrence, or state; English borrowed the label through Anglo-French from Latin verbum.

adjectivehistorical-form prefix

verbal

Of, relating to, or consisting of words; also of verbs and, in one modern contrast, spoken rather than written.

adverbhistorical-form prefix

verbatim

In exactly the same words; English borrowed the Medieval Latin adverb verbatim, built on verbum and -atim.

word

A meaningful spoken or written unit; an inherited English form whose Germanic branch is cognate with Latin verbum rather than borrowed from it.

German masculine nounhistorical form

Feind

The modern German noun for a personal, political, military, or ideological enemy or opponent. Duden derives it through Middle High German vīnt or vīant and Old High German fīand, literally the hating one; DWDS dates Old High German fīant and fījant to the eighth century and identifies the Germanic ancestor as a petrified substantivized present participle. Grimm’s dictionary independently compares Gothic fijands, Old English fēond, English fiend, Dutch vijand, and Nordic forms, while warning that its own still-deeper foam hypothesis required confirmation. The reviewed route therefore follows the inherited enemy noun to reconstructed *fi(j)and- and *fi(j)ēn-, then treats *peh₁- as proposed and stops.

Middle Irish noundossier summary

cais

eDIL separates two Irish headwords written cais. The first, also recorded as caise, is explicitly explained both as love and as hate; its cited passages and glossary equations range from searc and grádh "love" to miscais and mioscais "hatred", with context deciding individual readings. One Éigse line is tentatively translated so that the same visible form occurs on both sides: "my love ... is met by hatred(?)". The question mark matters. The second eDIL headword cais means "eye" and is excluded from this semantic lineage. These records establish a remarkable lexicographic opposition, not one timeless essence, a chronology from love to hate, or proof that every occurrence belongs to one historically indivisible sense. John T. Koch compares the noun with Proto-Celtic *katsi- < *kad-t/si- and a wider *kad- family, but that ancestry and its proposed Germanic comparison remain open. eDIL itself generally supplies etymologies only selectively. No manuscript pixels were directly inspected, no earliest-use or historical-frequency claim is made, and no exact pronunciation is invented.

adjectivecontrarian claim

candid

Open or frank in modern English, inherited through French and Latin from a family of brightness and whiteness.

verb · nounhistorical form

check

To verify, restrain, mark, or issue a bank draft today; a word whose oldest English history begins with a threatened king in chess.

nounhistorical form

chess

The board game whose English name arrives through French chess vocabulary, with competing scholarly accounts of the deeper Persian and Arabic route.

Gothic masculine nd-stem common noundossier summary

fijands

A Gothic masculine nd-stem noun conventionally glossed enemy. Project Wulfila currently exposes 26 candidates: three verified noun assignments, two further noun-only assignments, and 21 surface forms also listed under the living verb fijan. Ayora Estevan explains the collision diachronically: Proto-Germanic had already lexicalized the present-participial *fi(j)and- as enemy, while Gothic retained productive one-who-hates participles beside the noun. The five noun-only candidates use fiand, fijands, fijande, and fijandis; all five were inspected in Codex Argenteus facsimiles.

ATTESTED / RECONSTRUCTED / BOUNDARY

HISTORICAL FORMS

*wer-dho-

something spoken; word

DATE: Proto-Indo-European suffixed full grade
MATCH: historical-form prefix
DOSSIERS: 5

*wer-³

to perceive; watch out for

DATE: Proto-Indo-European root
MATCH: historical-form prefix
DOSSIERS: 0

Proto-Germanic / Indo-European

*werh₁-

speak

DATE: Proto-Indo-European speaking root
MATCH: historical-form prefix
DOSSIERS: 6

*rīkja-

powerful, rich, kingly

DATE: Proto-Germanic horizon
MATCH: gloss
DOSSIERS: 1

*tkeH-

rule, have power, possess

DATE: dialectal Indo-European prehistory
MATCH: gloss
DOSSIERS: 3

German / Indo-European

Feind

enemy, adversary, hostile power, enemy force, or determined opponent

DATE: German spelling attested in 1483; modern standard headword
MATCH: gloss
DOSSIERS: 1

Present-Day English / Indo-European

humiliate

reduce to a lower position in one’s own or others’ eyes; cause shame or embarrassment

DATE: circa 1534–today
MATCH: gloss
DOSSIERS: 1

Late Latin / Indo-European

humiliātiō

action of lowering; abasement; subduing or humbling through mortification

DATE: Christian and Late Latin
MATCH: gloss
DOSSIERS: 1

Present-Day English / Indo-European

intellect

the power or capacity of knowing, reasoning, or understanding

DATE: 14th century–today
MATCH: gloss
DOSSIERS: 1

Present-Day English / Indo-European

muscle

contractile body tissue; later strength or coercive power

DATE: 14th century–today
MATCH: gloss
DOSSIERS: 1

Middle English / Indo-European

riche

wealthy, powerful, rich

DATE: Middle English
MATCH: gloss
DOSSIERS: 1