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Find a modern word—or search sideways through reconstructed roots, historical forms, meanings, languages, scholars, sources, claims, disputes, and witnesses.
WIKTIONARY VIA KAIKKI / WIKTEXTRACT
Imported dictionary evidence
These are source reports, not reviewed *SET-U ancestry. A list of templates or numbered etymologies is not an ancestor chain. Scholarly disagreements remain in the original source text.
35,981 English word records · 45,491 etymology sections in this online subset
PARTIAL ENGLISH COVERAGE · FULL CORPUS REMAINS LOCAL1 source section across 1 headword matching “Ten”. These are separate from the reviewed results below.
tenEnglish (en) · Unnumbered etymologySource text
PIE word *déḱm̥ From Middle English ten, tene, from Old English tīen, from Proto-West Germanic *tehun, from Proto-Germanic *tehun, from Proto-Indo-European *déḱm̥. Cognate with Scots ten, tene (“ten”), West Frisian tsien (“ten”), Saterland Frisian tjoon (“ten”), North Frisian tiin (“ten”). See also teen.
Original Wiktionary entry and references ↗INDEPENDENT SOURCE LIBRARY
More sources for this spelling
These are spelling matches, not a claim of identical senses or agreement. Historical accounts retain their own editions and limits; none is automatically promoted into reviewed ancestry.
Mayhew–Skeat (1888)
1888; pinned HTML transcription updated October 28, 20240112
MODERN ENTRY POINTS
WORD DOSSIERS
noun, adjective, pronounexact headword
ten
The inherited English cardinal number, carried through Old English and Germanic from the Indo-European numeral also reflected in Latin decem.
OPEN THE FULL LINEAGE ↗noun combining formcontrarian claim
-logy
A bound English word element used in formations involving discourse or expression and in names of doctrines, theories, sciences, and fields of study.
OPEN THE FULL LINEAGE ↗nouncontrarian claim
December
The twelfth month in the modern calendar; its inherited Latin name literally identifies it as the tenth month.
OPEN THE FULL LINEAGE ↗German masculine nouncontrarian claim
Hass
The modern German noun for intense aversion, rejection, or hostility toward a person, group, or institution. Duden traces Middle and Old High German haʒ to suffering, sorrow, and resentment and records the 1996 spelling change from Haß to Hass. DWDS/Pfeifer reports the Old High German noun from the eighth century and places it in the Germanic family of Old Saxon heti, Old English hete, Old Norse hatr, Gothic hatis, and related forms. Grimm’s DWB preserves a more complicated semantic record: hostile pursuit or action, anger expressed in deeds, ordinary hostile disposition, and even measured rivalry during friendly competition. The reviewed route reuses *hatiz- and the qualified *ḱh₂d-es- / *ḱeh₂d- comparison, then stops.
OPEN THE FULL LINEAGE ↗noundossier summary
adverb
A grammatical class commonly modifying verbs, adjectives, other adverbs, phrases, clauses, or sentences; the English term continues Latin adverbium.
OPEN THE FULL LINEAGE ↗nounhistorical form
aguacate
The Spanish word for the avocado tree and fruit, borrowed from Nahuatl āhuacatl, whose historical records include both fruit and testicle senses.
OPEN THE FULL LINEAGE ↗Middle Irish nouncontrarian claim
cais
eDIL separates two Irish headwords written cais. The first, also recorded as caise, is explicitly explained both as love and as hate; its cited passages and glossary equations range from searc and grádh "love" to miscais and mioscais "hatred", with context deciding individual readings. One Éigse line is tentatively translated so that the same visible form occurs on both sides: "my love ... is met by hatred(?)". The question mark matters. The second eDIL headword cais means "eye" and is excluded from this semantic lineage. These records establish a remarkable lexicographic opposition, not one timeless essence, a chronology from love to hate, or proof that every occurrence belongs to one historically indivisible sense. John T. Koch compares the noun with Proto-Celtic *katsi- < *kad-t/si- and a wider *kad- family, but that ancestry and its proposed Germanic comparison remain open. eDIL itself generally supplies etymologies only selectively. No manuscript pixels were directly inspected, no earliest-use or historical-frequency claim is made, and no exact pronunciation is invented.
OPEN THE FULL LINEAGE ↗adjectivedossier summary
candid
Open or frank in modern English, inherited through French and Latin from a family of brightness and whiteness.
OPEN THE FULL LINEAGE ↗nouncontrarian claim
candor
Frankness or honest expression, historically a word for brightness, radiance, whiteness, and unstained purity.
OPEN THE FULL LINEAGE ↗nounhistorical form
chai
In current English, a South Asian-style tea commonly prepared with milk and spices; the word belongs to the overland cha/chay transmission family ultimately derived from Chinese 茶.
OPEN THE FULL LINEAGE ↗verb · noundossier summary
check
To verify, restrain, mark, or issue a bank draft today; a word whose oldest English history begins with a threatened king in chess.
OPEN THE FULL LINEAGE ↗verb · nounhistorical form
checkmate
An inescapable chess defeat and, figuratively, complete thwarting; a compound transmitted through French, Arabic, and Persian chess language.
OPEN THE FULL LINEAGE ↗0212
ATTESTED / RECONSTRUCTED / BOUNDARY
HISTORICAL FORMS
●
Present-Day English / Indo-European
ten
the cardinal number one greater than nine
- DATE
- modern spelling; inherited word recorded before the 12th century
- MATCH
- exact historical form
- DOSSIERS
- 1
Middle English / Indo-European
ten
ten
- DATE
- Middle English, c. 1150–1500
- MATCH
- exact historical form
- DOSSIERS
- 1
Proto-Indo-European / Indo-European
*dekm̥
ten
- DATE
- Proto-Indo-European prehistory
- MATCH
- gloss
- DOSSIERS
- 5
Proto-Germanic / Indo-European
*hwōtja-
hostile or threatening
- DATE
- Proto-Germanic adjective reconstruction
- MATCH
- gloss
- DOSSIERS
- 1
Proto-Germanic / Indo-European
*tehun
ten
- DATE
- Proto-Germanic reconstruction, c. 500 BCE–200 CE
- MATCH
- gloss
- DOSSIERS
- 1
Proto-Germanic / Indo-European
*xatēnan ~ *xatōjanan
reconstructed class-III or related weak verbs meaning hate
- DATE
- Proto-Germanic reconstruction alternatives
- MATCH
- gloss
- DOSSIERS
- 6
Latin / Indo-European
December
the tenth month
- DATE
- Latin antiquity
- MATCH
- gloss
- DOSSIERS
- 1
German / Indo-European
Hass
intense aversion, rejection, or hostility toward a person, group, or institution
- DATE
- current German standard spelling since 1996
- MATCH
- gloss
- DOSSIERS
- 1
Present-Day English / Indo-European
adverb
a word class modifying verbs, adjectives, adverbs, phrases, clauses, or sentences
- DATE
- 15th century–today
- MATCH
- gloss
- DOSSIERS
- 1
Latin / Indo-European
candor
brightness, radiance, whiteness; favorable disposition
- DATE
- Latin antiquity
- MATCH
- gloss
- DOSSIERS
- 1
Present-Day English / Indo-European
chai
a tea beverage commonly prepared with spices, milk, and sweetener
- DATE
- 1984–today
- MATCH
- gloss
- DOSSIERS
- 1
Middle English / Indo-European
chekmaten / chekmat
to checkmate or frustrate; the mating position
- DATE
- 14th–15th centuries
- MATCH
- gloss
- DOSSIERS
- 1
0324
WHERE INTERPRETATION IS TESTED
CLAIMS & DISPUTES
SCHOLARLY DISPUTES / 12
resolvedestablishedexact word
Is English ten borrowed from Latin decem?
No. English ten is inherited through Old English and Germanic, while Latin decem is a cognate from the same Indo-European numeral.
openprobableposition text
Did -rīx mean exactly “king” in every compound name?
Not necessarily. The king or prince value is secure for the element, but scholarship distinguishes names where it is determinative from analyses in which it is semantically bleached or intensifying. Each host therefore requires its own compositional claim.
openprobableposition text
Is the exact phonetic shape of *fi(j)and- directly known?
No. The form is a comparative reconstruction. Optional j notation, branch vowels, and the relation of written historical variants require analysis rather than direct Proto-Germanic observation.
openprobableposition text
Can the exact Proto-Germanic pronunciation and paradigm be recovered?
Not completely. Comparative forms support the morphology, but no recording or written Proto-Germanic paradigm survives.
openproposedposition text
Does the Éigse line certainly use cais once for love and once for hatred?
Not certainly. eDIL tentatively translates "mo chais is cais 'na agaid" as "my love ... is met by hatred(?)" and prints a question mark on the second reading.
openprobableposition text
How was historical cais pronounced in each cited period and region?
Not directly recoverable from the reviewed evidence. Written forms and variants do not constitute recorded audio or a complete phonological reconstruction.
openprobableposition text
Did candidates claim moral purity?
The whitened toga is historical and lexical. Reading it as a guaranteed moral-purity claim goes beyond what the word formation alone proves.
openprobableposition text
Does the con- in conscience mean together or intensively?
Both analyses are published. Merriam-Webster presents com- plus scire, while American Heritage labels com- intensive; the dossier keeps the edge probable rather than forcing one exclusive gloss.
openproposedposition text
Does fiende securely descend from exactly *peh₁-?
Only as a qualified modern proposal. Kroonen publishes the route; Hellquist records a historically different deeper comparison, and neither recovers a written ancestral token or unique original semantic scene.
openprobableposition text
Can the exact Proto-Germanic pronunciation and inflection be recovered?
Not completely. OED reconstructs vowel contraction and formal variation, but no recording or written Proto-Germanic paradigm survives.
openprobableposition text
Can the exact Proto-Germanic pronunciation and full paradigm be recovered?
Not completely. Comparative evidence supports the nd-participial morphology, but no written paradigm or recording survives.
openprobableposition text
Can the exact pronunciation of frēond be heard or uniquely recovered?
No. The displayed IPA is a normalized scholarly approximation across written dialect evidence, not one recorded Old English voice.
CONTRARIAN TRUTHS / 12
RANK 95GRADE Aexact ranked word
Ten and decimal are cousins, not borrower and source.
English ten is inherited through Germanic; decimal is learned through Latin. Both independently continue the reconstructed Indo-European numeral family.
RANK 25GRADE Aranked reveal
Hate was enemy-directed action as well as feeling in Old English.
Old English hatian could mean treating as an enemy, persecuting, or injuring; Beowulf puts the verb beside hostile deeds. The deeper claim that pursuit was the first meaning remains open, and the graph says so.
RANK 27GRADE Aranked reveal
The Old English verb survives most visibly as an enemy.
The located weak-verb corpus inventory gives hettan only one form: hettende. Bosworth–Toller records that surface family repeatedly under hettend, “enemy” or “antagonist,” including Genesis and the Phoenix. The verb is therefore not a neat recovered paradigm; it is a lemma inferred at the edge between action, agent, and lexicalized foe.
RANK 40GRADE Aranked reveal
Modern Danish kept the enemy but lost the hate verb inside its grammar.
DDO identifies fjende as historically a present participle of a verb corresponding to Old Norse fjá, to hate or persecute. Old Danish fiende then survives through a remarkable surface cloud: Fiende, Fiænde, Finde, Fînde, clipped Fiend, and both two- and three-syllable scans. The current noun no longer means that every enemy literally feels hate; it names active opposition and extends to states, ideologies, animals, weather, and abstractions. The grammatical fossil unveils a history, not a timeless essence.
RANK 44GRADE Acontrarian claim
One corpus hit written hatia is not the hate verb at all.
The May 2026 Corpus Oudfries search returns six records under word or lemma hatia, but spelling alone creates a trap. In Brokmer B 101, Buma explicitly identifies hatia as atia "rear" with prothetic h; Nijdam's translation confirms a poor mother unable to feed her children. That token is excluded from the hate lineage. The five relevant records then reveal the genuine verb's own range: harm or hindrance on an army road, legal adversity, and God hating perjury, lying speech, and false witnesses. The contrarian truth is therefore philological twice over: one identical surface belongs elsewhere, while the inherited verb itself extends beyond private feeling.
RANK 48GRADE Aranked reveal
Old Saxon hate crosses from verb into enemy noun inside one manuscript locus.
Köbler assigns hatōn four cited loci, but the evidence is not four neat tokens. Heliand 1451 alone varies between Munich hatan and Cotton haton. At Heliand 4915, Munich hatandiero and Cotton hettendero are indexed twice: under the verb as present-participial forms and under hėttiand as the lexicalized agent noun enemy. The Munich hatan and hatandiero pixels are directly inspected. The reveal is therefore grammatical, not mystical: one written formation sits at the boundary between haters and enemies. It does not prove that every enemy hates, that pursue was the first meaning, or that the four-locus dictionary count represents four manuscripts.
RANK 49GRADE Aranked reveal
The token is attested even though the dictionary headword wears an asterisk.
Köbler heads the Old Saxon noun hėti* but lists written accusative and dative heti plus genitive hetias beneath it. The exact Munich Heliand token is directly visible in the clause rîkioro manno heti endi harmquidi. The dictionary count three also hides a second distinction: it means three lexical loci, while Heliand 1322 survives with M, C, and V readings, producing five reported witness readings across the dossier. The star therefore belongs to an editorial headword layer; it does not erase the attested surface or turn Old Saxon into Proto-Germanic. The visible Heliand context is endured hostility or persecution, while the Saxon Confession groups hetias with malice, envy, and slander. Even the inherited grammar stays open: Fulk and Köbler use an i-stem analysis, whereas Pfeifer calls the wider noun an old es/os-stem.
RANK 50GRADE Aranked reveal
The hostile adjective may belong to whet and threat, not hate—and its starred lemma still has a nominative.
Köbler's Old Saxon entry reports five written readings at three Heliand loci, including nominative hotie, huotia, and huoti, yet heads the entry hōti*. The asterisk therefore cannot be explained away as “no nominative survives.” More radically, the sources split at the root. UT groups hōti with hatōn and heti under the inherited hate etymon k̑ād-. Köbler's same entry cross-references hatōn but reconstructs a different *hwōtja- adjective beside *hwōtō “threat” and Pokorny's *kʷē̆d- / *kʷō̆d- family of boring, pricking, sharpening, whetting, and inciting. Munich hotie and hotean are directly visible in contexts of hostile minds and hostile intent; Cotton huotia, huotian, and huoti remain source-reported. The unveiling is not “hostility secretly means sharpened hate.” It is that rigorous etymology sometimes reveals two irreconcilable maps where a flat dictionary would print one arrow.
RANK 56GRADE Aranked reveal
The Old English friend was a loving-agent noun—but not merely a modern intimate.
OED and Bosworth–Toller preserve the morphology behind frēond: an inherited nd-stem formation tied to the verb meaning free or love. The same sources then refuse a slogan-sized definition. Old English uses cover close companion, ally or non-enemy, relation, friend of God, friend versus foe, and friends acting as arbitrators. Cotton MS Vitellius A XV folio 152r visibly preserves freondum in a hall filled with favored people at Beowulf 1018. The unveiling is not that friend secretly means love in every sentence; it is that a loving-agent fossil became a socially versatile noun before modern English existed.
RANK 58GRADE A-ranked reveal
Medieval Hass could be friendly competition.
Grimm’s DWB quotes Erec 2059: riders pursue a hawking contest, friuntlîchen striten, and share a bescheiden haʒ. The dictionary interprets this as rivalry in pursuing a goal. Modern Duden instead centers intense aversion and hostility. The contrast reveals a real historical side meaning without claiming that every medieval use was friendly or that Liebe and Hass share ancestry.
RANK 65GRADE Acontrarian claim
A borrowed word can encode a category that English flattens.
Navajo hooghan means home or house within Diné life; English hogan should not be generalized into a label for any Indigenous dwelling.
RANK 78GRADE Aranked reveal
The maritime rule has a maritime exception.
Portuguese chá crossed through Macao by sea yet belongs to the cha-type family usually associated with overland diffusion. Historical tendencies are not laws.
0412
BOOKS / DICTIONARIES / ARTICLES / DATABASES
SOURCES
historical dictionary8 CLAIM LINKS
Ten — Definition and Word History
Merriam-Webster Editors / 2026
title prefixAUDIT EVERY USE ↗research article59 CLAIM LINKS
On the syntax of the Agent nouns in Gothic: the case of nd-formations
Daniel Ayora Estevan / 2023
publisherAUDIT EVERY USE ↗historical dictionary38 CLAIM LINKS
Althochdeutsches Wörterbuch — fîant, fîjant
Althochdeutsches Wörterbuch editorial team
publisherAUDIT EVERY USE ↗historical dictionary35 CLAIM LINKS
Althochdeutsches Wörterbuch — fîên
Althochdeutsches Wörterbuch editorial team
publisherAUDIT EVERY USE ↗typological database26 CLAIM LINKS
Chapter 138: Tea
Östen Dahl / 2013
author or editorAUDIT EVERY USE ↗historical dictionary18 CLAIM LINKS
A Concise Anglo-Saxon Dictionary — hete and related entries
John R. Clark Hall / 1916
publisherAUDIT EVERY USE ↗scholarly dictionary18 CLAIM LINKS
Kuning — Etymologisches Wörterbuch des Althochdeutschen V
Rosemarie Lühr / 2014
publisherAUDIT EVERY USE ↗historical grammar15 CLAIM LINKS
A Gothic Grammar with Selections for Reading and a Glossary — hatan and hatjan
Wilhelm Braune · translated and edited by Gerhard H. Balg / 1895
publisherAUDIT EVERY USE ↗historical dictionary13 CLAIM LINKS
HETTAN; HETTEND — An Anglo-Saxon Dictionary, Dictionary H
Joseph Bosworth · Thomas Northcote Toller · Jonathan Slocum / 1898
source titleAUDIT EVERY USE ↗scholarly dictionary10 CLAIM LINKS
liuben; giliuben; liubi; liubî — Etymologisches Wörterbuch des Althochdeutschen
Rosemarie Lühr / 2014
publisherAUDIT EVERY USE ↗scholarly dictionary9 CLAIM LINKS
Kunni — Etymologisches Wörterbuch des Althochdeutschen V
Rosemarie Lühr / 2014
publisherAUDIT EVERY USE ↗historical dictionary6 CLAIM LINKS
Frühneuhochdeutsches Wörterbuch — hetzen
Oskar Reichmann et al.
publisherAUDIT EVERY USE ↗0512
FIRST USES & HISTORICAL OBJECTS
ATTESTATION WITNESSES
SOURCE REPORTEDlexicographic first use
Merriam-Webster first-known-use record for ten
ten / ten / First known use reported as before the 12th century
Ten — Definition and Word Historyexact attested form / OPEN RECORD ↗DIRECTLY INSPECTEDprinted book
John Harris’s NOSOCOMIUM entry uses Hospital for an institution where poor sick people are attended and, if possible, cured.
hospital / hospital / 1704
Lexicon technicum: or, an universal English dictionary of arts and scienceswitness excerpt / OPEN RECORD ↗SOURCE REPORTEDlexical corpus record
Leiden Willeram, army camp
fīunt / fīunt / circa 1100
Oudnederlands Woordenboek — fīuntwitness excerpt / OPEN RECORD ↗SOURCE REPORTEDlexical corpus record
Gísl Illugason, Magnússflokkr 7
hata / hata / poem attributed 1104; concordance date unreviewed
Lexicon Poeticum — hata, verbwitness excerpt / OPEN RECORD ↗SOURCE REPORTEDlexical corpus record
Iwein, best friend
vriunt / Freund / circa 1200, source-reported
Deutsches Wörterbuch von Jacob Grimm und Wilhelm Grimm — Freundwitness excerpt / OPEN RECORD ↗SOURCE REPORTEDlexical corpus record
Malevolent creatures or monsters
fiend / fiend / circa 1275, possibly composed before 1200
Oxford English Dictionary — fiend, n., revised 2026witness excerpt / OPEN RECORD ↗SOURCE REPORTEDlexical corpus record
Matthias von Beheim, John 5:16
haʒʒen / hassen / 1343 textual horizon, source-reported
Deutsches Wörterbuch von Jacob Grimm und Wilhelm Grimm — hassenwitness excerpt / OPEN RECORD ↗SOURCE REPORTEDlexical corpus record
Luther record reported by FWB
hetzen / hessen / hittzen / hetzen / 1537/40 polemical record
Frühneuhochdeutsches Wörterbuch — hetzenwitness excerpt / OPEN RECORD ↗SOURCE REPORTEDlexical corpus record
Merriam-Webster noun combining-form entry
-logy / -logy / current lexicographic record
-logy — Definition and Word Historywitness excerpt / OPEN RECORD ↗SOURCE REPORTEDlexical corpus
Dictionary of Old English Corpus form type lemmatized by Tío Sáenz
hettan / hettan / Old English corpus inventory
The Lemmatisation of Old English Weak Verbs on a Relational Databasewitness excerpt / OPEN RECORD ↗SOURCE REPORTEDlexical corpus
Hettend form reported by Bosworth–Toller
hettan / hettan / Old English Genesis record
HETTAN; HETTEND — An Anglo-Saxon Dictionary, Dictionary Hwitness excerpt / OPEN RECORD ↗SOURCE REPORTEDlexical corpus
Bright’s edited Phoenix, preserved in the Exeter Book
hettan / hettan / Old English Phoenix record
An Anglo-Saxon Reader — The Phœnixwitness excerpt / OPEN RECORD ↗06
SEARCH IS DISCOVERY, NOT PROOF
EVERY RESULT OPENS A PERMANENT EVIDENCE RECORD.
Matching text only locates a record. It does not raise confidence, settle a dispute, establish cognacy, or turn a source report into direct inspection. Follow the result into its citations and editorial limits.