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THE GRAPH.
Find a modern word—or search sideways through reconstructed roots, historical forms, meanings, languages, scholars, sources, claims, disputes, and witnesses.
WIKTIONARY VIA KAIKKI / WIKTEXTRACT
Imported dictionary evidence
These are source reports, not reviewed *SET-U ancestry. A list of templates or numbered etymologies is not an ancestor chain. Scholarly disagreements remain in the original source text.
35,981 English word records · 45,491 etymology sections in this online subset
PARTIAL ENGLISH COVERAGE · FULL CORPUS REMAINS LOCAL2 source sections across 1 headword matching “Lang”. These are separate from the reviewed results below.
langEnglish (en) · Etymology 1Source text
Etymology tree Proto-Indo-European *dn̥ǵʰwéh₂s Proto-Italic *dn̥ɣwā Latin dingua Latin lingua Proto-Indo-European *-h₂ Proto-Indo-European *-éh₂ Proto-Indo-European *-tós Proto-Indo-European *-eh₂tos Proto-Italic *-ātos Latin -ātus Proto-Indo-European *-ikos Proto-Italic *-ikos Latin -icus Latin -āticus Latin -āticum Vulgar Latin *linguāticum Old French languagebor. Middle English langage English languageclip. English lang Clipping of language.
Original Wiktionary entry and references ↗langEnglish (en) · Etymology 2Source text
Inherited from Northern Middle English lang (“long”) (southern long).
Original Wiktionary entry and references ↗INDEPENDENT SOURCE LIBRARY
More sources for this spelling
These are spelling matches, not a claim of identical senses or agreement. Historical accounts retain their own editions and limits; none is automatically promoted into reviewed ancestry.
Browse the independently attributed sources →0112
MODERN ENTRY POINTS
WORD DOSSIERS
nounhistorical form
adverb
A grammatical class commonly modifying verbs, adjectives, other adverbs, phrases, clauses, or sentences; the English term continues Latin adverbium.
OPEN THE FULL LINEAGE ↗nouncontrarian claim
alpaca
An English animal and fiber word borrowed through Spanish from Aymara allpaqa / allphaqa.
OPEN THE FULL LINEAGE ↗noun · verbcontrarian claim
boomerang
An Aboriginal Australian borrowing recorded in English by 1824. Dharug and Dharawal forms have been proposed, but the Australian National Dictionary Centre says the exact source language remains uncertain.
OPEN THE FULL LINEAGE ↗nouncontrarian claim
chai
In current English, a South Asian-style tea commonly prepared with milk and spices; the word belongs to the overland cha/chay transmission family ultimately derived from Chinese 茶.
OPEN THE FULL LINEAGE ↗verb · noundossier summary
checkmate
An inescapable chess defeat and, figuratively, complete thwarting; a compound transmitted through French, Arabic, and Persian chess language.
OPEN THE FULL LINEAGE ↗Old English strong masculine nd-stem noundossier summary
frēond
Old English frēond is the directly attested source-language noun behind modern friend. OED analyzes it as an inherited strong masculine agent noun in -nd, ultimately a noun use of the present participle of the Germanic base behind free, and documents West Saxon frēond, Northumbrian and Kentish frīond, Kentish frīand, mutated frīend and frȳnd, endingless plurals, and re-formed frēondas. Bosworth–Toller prints freónd and friónd, explicitly links freónde loving to freón or freógan, and supplies examples for companion, ally, relation, friend of God, friend versus foe, and friends acting as arbitrators. OED independently preserves close companion, non-enemy, ally, and kinsman senses in Old English. Cotton MS Vitellius A XV folio 152r was directly inspected at Beowulf 1018, where the pixels visibly preserve freondum in Heorot innan wæs freondum afylled. The route reuses the reviewed *frijōnd-, *frī-, and proposed *prī- nodes and then stops. The displayed pronunciation is a normalized approximation, not a recorded voice.
OPEN THE FULL LINEAGE ↗Old Frisian weak verbdossier summary
hatia
Old Frisian hatia is a weak verb whose lexicographic field extends beyond an inward feeling. Hofmann and Popkema give hate or reject, damage, and a feud-language expression for harming or pursuing someone as an enemy. A May 2026 Corpus Oudfries search for word or lemma hatia returns six records in 235,462 tokens, but those are not six instances of this verb. Buma's critical note on Brokmer B 101 explicitly identifies its written hatia as atia "rear" with prothetic h, and Nijdam translates the passage as a poor mother being unable to feed her children. That token is excluded from the hate lineage. The five relevant corpus records occur in legal, road, family, and theological contexts: forms hatijen, hatie, hata, and hatien can concern harming or hindering on a road, a writing or event going against someone, or God hating perjury, lying speech, and false witnesses. The current corpus count is a bounded research surface, not a frequency estimate for medieval speech or a claim about every surviving witness. The underlying manuscripts were not directly inspected for this dossier, no earliest-use claim is made, and no exact historical pronunciation is invented.
OPEN THE FULL LINEAGE ↗noundossier summary
kayak
An English borrowing recorded in 1757 from Inuit qayaq, the name of the Indigenous Arctic watercraft; the reviewed English source does not identify one specific Inuit language variety.
OPEN THE FULL LINEAGE ↗adjectivecontrarian claim
liufs
The normalized Gothic adjective meaning dear or beloved, preserved through inflected manuscript forms including liuba and liubans.
OPEN THE FULL LINEAGE ↗nounhistorical form
proverb
A brief traditional saying or maxim; English received the word through Anglo-French from Latin proverbium.
OPEN THE FULL LINEAGE ↗nounhistorical form
verb
A grammatical word class expressing action, occurrence, or state; English borrowed the label through Anglo-French from Latin verbum.
OPEN THE FULL LINEAGE ↗adjectivehistorical form
verbal
Of, relating to, or consisting of words; also of verbs and, in one modern contrast, spoken rather than written.
OPEN THE FULL LINEAGE ↗023
ATTESTED / RECONSTRUCTED / BOUNDARY
HISTORICAL FORMS
●
Old Frisian / Indo-European
hatia
to hate or reject; to damage; in feud-language, to harm or pursue as an enemy
- DATE
- Old Frisian legal and theological records, text 1220-1300 through manuscripts 1490-1540
- MATCH
- gloss
- DOSSIERS
- 1
Latin / Indo-European
verbum
word, utterance, expression, language, discourse
- DATE
- Latin antiquity
- MATCH
- gloss
- DOSSIERS
- 5
Beyond secure reconstruction
UNKNOWN
No uniquely established donor language or deeper ancestor is currently promoted.
- DATE
- before the disputed Sydney-region source candidates
- MATCH
- gloss
- DOSSIERS
- 1
0317
WHERE INTERPRETATION IS TESTED
CLAIMS & DISPUTES
SCHOLARLY DISPUTES / 12
openprobableposition text
Can the lexicalization of one who hates as enemy be dated to one exact event?
No unique event is known. Cross-branch evidence places it before the recorded daughter languages, but no text records the prehistoric lexicalization moment.
openprobableposition text
Can the exact lexicalization date of the loving participle be known?
No. The formation predates the daughter-language records and is already nominal in the earliest High German evidence.
openproposedposition text
Which Aboriginal language supplied boomerang?
Dharug bumarin and a Dharawal bou-mar-rang form are published candidates, but the Australian National Dictionary Centre says the exact source language remains uncertain.
openprobableposition text
Did English chai come from one identifiable donor language?
The modern culinary sense strongly points toward South Asian usage, but Merriam-Webster lists Turkish, Russian, Persian, Hindi, and Urdu source forms without selecting one unique donor.
openprobableposition text
Exactly which Romance language handed the word to English?
French and Italian stages are both central in reference accounts; a single linear donor route can overstate the surviving evidence.
openprobableposition text
Can the exact moment when a loving one became the noun friend be dated?
No. The formation predates the daughter-language records, while lexicalization is inferred from already-established nouns in those languages.
openprobableposition text
Did friend or kin come first semantically?
The inherited agent formation and daughter-language distributions do not recover one securely dated semantic split. Old Norse evidence preserves overlap rather than a single transition record.
openestablishedposition text
Is John 7:23 the first Gothic use of the verb?
Not established. The translation belongs to a fourth-century tradition, the surviving codex is early sixth century, and no complete lost-text or spoken-language archive exists.
openestablishedposition text
Was persecution the securely recovered original meaning?
No. The Heliand context supports persecution or endured hostility at one branch locus, but a daughter-language context cannot by itself establish semantic priority in Proto-Germanic or Proto-Indo-European.
openprobableposition text
Can the English donor be narrowed to one Inuit language?
Not from the reviewed English etymology. It gives only Inuit qayaq. Official Greenlandic qajaq evidence proves a related living form, not that Greenlandic was uniquely the immediate donor.
openprobableposition text
How wide was the PIE meaning?
“Love” is a convenient gloss, but daughter languages point to a field including desire, pleasure, approval, and care.
openprobableposition text
Which Eastern Algonquian language directly supplied moose?
The family source is secure, but related Massachusett moos and Eastern Abenaki mos do not by themselves identify one unique direct donor.
CONTRARIAN TRUTHS / 5
RANK 55GRADE Aranked reveal
frændi is friend’s cognate—but kinship became its Old Norse center.
The Germanic family did not carry one frozen dictionary definition into every daughter language. OED places Old Icelandic frændi beside English friend; Cleasby–Vigfússon and Fritzner preserve the old participial analysis; ONP then exposes what happened in use. Its 225 citations distinguish friend, foster brother or companion, kinsman or son, parents, and ancestor, with no sharp wall between friend and kin. The unveiling is semantic divergence backed by a shared graph: English centers chosen companion, while the Scandinavian cognate centers family without ceasing to be cognate.
RANK 61GRADE Acontrarian claim
Its most famous behavior is not universal—and even its exact donor language is unsettled.
Many hunting and fighting boomerangs do not return. Dharug and Dharawal sources have been proposed, while ANU keeps the exact language unresolved.
RANK 94GRADE Aranked reveal
Chai is tea returning through another route.
The source-language forms behind English chai ordinarily mean tea. English specialized one returning member of the wider Chinese tea-word dispersal as a particular drink style.
RANK 97GRADE Aranked reveal
A verb was once any word.
Latin verbum could mean word, utterance, expression, language, or discourse before and beside its technical grammatical sense. English inherited the specialized label.
RANK 192GRADE A-ranked reveal
The route is a network, not an arrow.
Russian чай reaches Chinese ch’a through a cluster of Turkic comparisons. Vasmer does not license one clean, uniquely named donor language.
0412
BOOKS / DICTIONARIES / ARTICLES / DATABASES
SOURCES
institutional reference4 CLAIM LINKS
Indigenous Languages in Canada — English loans
Canadian Language Museum / 2022
citation-key prefixAUDIT EVERY USE ↗typological database26 CLAIM LINKS
Chapter 138: Tea
Östen Dahl / 2013
publisherAUDIT EVERY USE ↗book chapter19 CLAIM LINKS
Toward a constructional framework for research on language change
Elizabeth Closs Traugott / 2014
source titleAUDIT EVERY USE ↗scholarly reference17 CLAIM LINKS
Celtic, chapter 9 of The Indo-European Language Family
Anders Richardt Jørgensen / 2022
source titleAUDIT EVERY USE ↗research article17 CLAIM LINKS
Notes on Gothic Forms — Hatan : hatjan “to hate”
Albert Morey Sturtevant / 1954
publisherAUDIT EVERY USE ↗historical grammar12 CLAIM LINKS
A Comparative Grammar of the Early Germanic Languages — Gothic hatis
R. D. Fulk / 2018
source titleAUDIT EVERY USE ↗historical grammar11 CLAIM LINKS
Grammar of the Gothic Language — glossary entries hatan, hatis, hatizōn, and hatjan
Joseph Wright / 1910
source titleAUDIT EVERY USE ↗scholarly reference7 CLAIM LINKS
Sauna
Kirsti Aapala · Klaas Ruppel / 2019
publisherAUDIT EVERY USE ↗historical dictionary7 CLAIM LINKS
Étymologique — Trésor de la langue française informatisé
ATILF · CNRS · Université de Lorraine / 2012
source titleAUDIT EVERY USE ↗historical dictionary6 CLAIM LINKS
Étymon — Trésor de la langue française informatisé
ATILF · CNRS · Université de Lorraine / 2012
source titleAUDIT EVERY USE ↗etymological dictionary5 CLAIM LINKS
An Etymological Dictionary of the German Language — hetzen
Friedrich Kluge · translated by John Francis Davis / 1891
source titleAUDIT EVERY USE ↗historical dictionary5 CLAIM LINKS
μῦς — Liddell and Scott Ancient Greek Dictionary
H. G. Liddell and R. Scott; Centre for the Greek Language editors / 2007
author or editorAUDIT EVERY USE ↗054
FIRST USES & HISTORICAL OBJECTS
ATTESTATION WITNESSES
SOURCE REPORTEDlexicographic first use
CNRTL historical-attestation report for French étymologique
étymologique / étymologique / c. 1550
Étymologique — Trésor de la langue française informatiséreporting source / OPEN RECORD ↗SOURCE REPORTEDlexicographic first use
CNRTL historical first-attestation report for French étymon
étymon / étymon / 1892
Étymon — Trésor de la langue française informatiséreporting source / OPEN RECORD ↗SOURCE REPORTEDlexical corpus record
Corpus Hedendaags Nederlands selection
vijand / vijand / 2017 corpus example
Algemeen Nederlands Woordenboek — vijand, grammar and corpus exampleswitness excerpt / OPEN RECORD ↗SOURCE REPORTEDlexical corpus record
eDIL lexical record for rí
rí / rí / Old and Middle Irish corpus record
Rí — Electronic Dictionary of the Irish Languagereporting source / OPEN RECORD ↗06
SEARCH IS DISCOVERY, NOT PROOF
EVERY RESULT OPENS A PERMANENT EVIDENCE RECORD.
Matching text only locates a record. It does not raise confidence, settle a dispute, establish cognacy, or turn a source report into direct inspection. Follow the result into its citations and editorial limits.