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MEASURE THE GRAPH ↗NOT JUST A DICTIONARY LOOKUP
6 EVIDENCE COLLECTIONSSEARCH
THE GRAPH.
Find a modern word—or search sideways through reconstructed roots, historical forms, meanings, languages, scholars, sources, claims, disputes, and witnesses.
WIKTIONARY VIA KAIKKI / WIKTEXTRACT
Imported dictionary evidence
These are source reports, not reviewed *SET-U ancestry. A list of templates or numbered etymologies is not an ancestor chain. Scholarly disagreements remain in the original source text.
35,981 English word records · 45,491 etymology sections in this online subset
PARTIAL ENGLISH COVERAGE · FULL CORPUS REMAINS LOCAL2 source sections across 1 headword matching “Class”. These are separate from the reviewed results below.
classEnglish (en) · Unnumbered etymologySource text
From Middle French classe, from Latin classis (“a class or division of the people, assembly of people, the whole body of citizens called to arms, the army, the fleet, later a class or division in general”), from Proto-Indo-European *kelh₁- (“to call, shout”). Doublet of clas and classis. Displaced Old English ġecynd.
Original Wiktionary entry and references ↗classEnglish (en) · Unnumbered etymologySource text
From Middle French classe, from Latin classis (“a class or division of the people, assembly of people, the whole body of citizens called to arms, the army, the fleet, later a class or division in general”), from Proto-Indo-European *kelh₁- (“to call, shout”). Doublet of clas and classis. Displaced Old English ġecynd.
Original Wiktionary entry and references ↗INDEPENDENT SOURCE LIBRARY
More sources for this spelling
These are spelling matches, not a claim of identical senses or agreement. Historical accounts retain their own editions and limits; none is automatically promoted into reviewed ancestry.
Browse the independently attributed sources →0112
MODERN ENTRY POINTS
WORD DOSSIERS
nouncontrarian claim
adverb
A grammatical class commonly modifying verbs, adjectives, other adverbs, phrases, clauses, or sentences; the English term continues Latin adverbium.
OPEN THE FULL LINEAGE ↗noun and adjectivedossier summary
female
A sex-class term borrowed through French from Latin fēmella, a diminutive of fēmina, with its English spelling later remodeled under male.
OPEN THE FULL LINEAGE ↗Gothic class-III weak-verb lemmadossier summary
fijan
A Gothic class-III weak verb conventionally glossed hate or detest. Project Wulfila currently exposes 42 candidate tokens under fijan: 13 verified, eight further lexically unambiguous, and 21 explicitly ambiguous with the masculine nd-stem noun fijands, enemy. The surface inventory contains fifteen written shapes, including one exact infinitive fijan in John 7:7 and four j-less forms. Ayora Estevan shows why the overlap cannot be normalized away: Proto-Germanic had already lexicalized *fi(j)and- as enemy, while Gothic still used the matching present-participial formation for one who hates.
OPEN THE FULL LINEAGE ↗Old Norse verbdossier summary
fjá
Old Norse fjá was a verb meaning to hate. The Dictionary of Old Norse Prose classifies it as poetic and exposes zero prose citations; its glossarium links point to the early form fía and the reconstructed Proto-Germanic *fi(j)ēn-. Cleasby and Vigfússon call the verb obsolete, compare Gothic fijan and Old English feon or fjan, and locate it in Hýmiskviða 22 and Lokasenna 35, with the reflexive fjásk in Skírnismál 33. Fritzner independently gives the same three locations. The normalized verse texts preserve three different grammatical surfaces: goð fjá in Hýmiskviða, mangi fíár in Lokasenna, and Freyr fiásk in Skírnismál. Lexicon Poeticum likewise reports three poetic records, but explicitly warns that its concordance is unreviewed and that dates should be checked. These are source-reported lexical and edited-text records, not directly inspected manuscript objects, and three records in the reviewed poetic concordance are not a census of every Old Norse utterance. The finite verb became a tiny poetic fossil while its inherited participial relative fjándi became the ordinary enemy noun and accumulated 222 citations in ONP's prose corpus. Those corpus totals are not directly frequency-comparable, but the contrast makes the grammatical survival visible. The generated possible runic inscription shown by modern dictionary transcriptions is not historical evidence and is excluded. No historical sound recording exists, so the dossier does not fabricate one exact pronunciation.
OPEN THE FULL LINEAGE ↗Old Dutch masculine noundossier summary
fīunt
Old Dutch fīunt is the normalized headword behind a twenty-six-occurrence historical-dictionary record for enemy or opponent. ONW classifies the noun as synchronically unsegmented but says it was originally the present participle of the verb corresponding to Old High German fīēn and Gothic fijan, a verb no longer known in Dutch. Its frequency table preserves six case-number cells: nominative and genitive singular plus nominative, genitive, dative, and accusative plural. Those are not a complete paradigm. The article displays twenty representative location blocks after warning that locations in the semantic profile have been reduced. Most early Wachtendonck Psalms material is linguistically dated 901–1000 but survives in copies dated 1595–1605, circa 1598, or 1701–1800; no tenth-century manuscript object was inspected. One dfiunt or fiunt gloss aligned with Latin diabolus is textually disputed, and one Groningen psalm gloss is explicitly assigned to Old Frisian by the dictionary. This dossier therefore treats fīunt as a nominal fossil with a partially preserved inflectional record, not as a productive Old Dutch participle or a complete transparent paradigm.
OPEN THE FULL LINEAGE ↗German weak verbhistorical form
hassen
The modern German weak verb for feeling hatred toward a person or for strongly disliking a thing or action. Duden traces it through Middle High German haʒʒen and Old High German haʒʒēn / haʒʒōn and adds that the older verb also meant pursue. Grimm’s DWB makes the semantic contrast explicit: it calls hostile pursuit or persecution the original sense and then describes a later, more muted center in hostile disposition rather than hostile deeds. BMZ and Lexer independently document the Middle High German verb and its literary record. The reviewed ancestry follows the reconstructed Germanic weak-verb alternatives into the *hatiz- family, preserves the qualified *ḱh₂d-es- / *ḱeh₂d- proposal, and then stops.
OPEN THE FULL LINEAGE ↗Old Norse weak verbhistorical form
hata
Old Norse hata is not only a medieval label for an inward feeling. The Dictionary of Old Norse Prose structures 101 prose citations under four active senses before its participial and reflexive branches: persecute; despise, reject, or cast aside; mock or humiliate; and hate, despise, or stand hostile toward. That ordering is a lexicographic analysis, not a chronology of semantic change. Fritzner independently begins with pursue or seek to destroy, continues through damage or destruction, and only then gives hate opposed to love. Zoëga likewise preserves poetic damage or destruction beside ordinary hate, while Cleasby and Vigfússon record active, reflexive, reciprocal, participial, and disputed poetic uses. Lexicon Poeticum displays eleven linked rows, including variants, damage, destruction, persecution, loathing, haters, and the gold-spending formula, but warns that its concordance has not been reviewed and that dates need checking. A c1200 scan of Holm perg 15 4°, folio 89v, was directly inspected against ONP's diplomatic transcription and visibly preserves hata in the line Elſcaþu hréinlife oc hata engi maɴ. All other rows remain source-reported. The generated possible runic inscriptions on modern dictionary transcriptions are excluded, and no exact historical pronunciation is invented.
OPEN THE FULL LINEAGE ↗Gothic class-III weak-verb lemmadossier summary
hatan
A Gothic weak verb conventionally glossed hate, represented by exactly two currently reported corpus tokens: hatandane in Luke 1:71 and hatandans in Luke 6:27. Both are present participles; no surviving token writes the normalized infinitive. Their translation behavior defeats a one-word gloss: Luke 1 uses fijandam for enemies and hatandane for those hating, while Luke 6 uses hatandans for enemies and fijandam for those hating. Project Wulfila keeps class-III hatan separate from class-I hatjan, Braune calls the forms conjugational fluctuation, Orel publishes a reconstructed class-III alternation, and Sturtevant argues that the hatan shape may instead be a specifically Gothic secondary formation.
OPEN THE FULL LINEAGE ↗Old Frisian weak verbhistorical form
hatia
Old Frisian hatia is a weak verb whose lexicographic field extends beyond an inward feeling. Hofmann and Popkema give hate or reject, damage, and a feud-language expression for harming or pursuing someone as an enemy. A May 2026 Corpus Oudfries search for word or lemma hatia returns six records in 235,462 tokens, but those are not six instances of this verb. Buma's critical note on Brokmer B 101 explicitly identifies its written hatia as atia "rear" with prothetic h, and Nijdam translates the passage as a poor mother being unable to feed her children. That token is excluded from the hate lineage. The five relevant corpus records occur in legal, road, family, and theological contexts: forms hatijen, hatie, hata, and hatien can concern harming or hindering on a road, a writing or event going against someone, or God hating perjury, lying speech, and false witnesses. The current corpus count is a bounded research surface, not a frequency estimate for medieval speech or a claim about every surviving witness. The underlying manuscripts were not directly inspected for this dossier, no earliest-use claim is made, and no exact historical pronunciation is invented.
OPEN THE FULL LINEAGE ↗Gothic class-II weak-verb lemmadossier summary
hatizōn
A Gothic weak verb meaning be angry with or at someone, represented by exactly one verified corpus token: present active second-person plural hatizoþ in John 7:23. Project Wulfila and Streitberg align the form with Greek χολᾶτε in the question “are you angry at me?” and analyze the verb with a dative object. The University of Texas derivational grammar builds class-II hatizōn on the consonantal stem hatiz- of hatis “hatred” or “wrath”; Wright independently lists it as a class-II weak verb. The macronized infinitive is a scholarly citation form, while the manuscript writes only the inflected token without a vowel-length mark. The route continues through the reviewed Germanic noun family and a qualified Indo-European comparison, then stops. One corpus token cannot establish spoken rarity, first use, a complete semantic range, exact pronunciation, or one prehistoric essence.
OPEN THE FULL LINEAGE ↗Gothic class-I weak-verb lemmadossier summary
hatjan
A Gothic weak verb meaning hate, represented by exactly one verified corpus token: the present participle hatjandam in Matthew 5:44. Project Wulfila lemmatizes that token as class-I hatjan, while the parallel Luke 6:27 command uses class-III hatandans from hatan. Braune treats the two shapes as conjugational fluctuation; Orel and the current corpus keep distinct formations visible. The normalized infinitive, the written participle, and the reconstructed parent are therefore never collapsed.
OPEN THE FULL LINEAGE ↗Old High German weak-verb citation formdossier summary
hazzōn
An Old High German citation form in the inherited Germanic hate-verb family, printed beside hazzēn and spelling variants hazēn, hazōn, haʒʒēn, and haʒʒōn. Starling’s source record dates hazzēn to the eighth century and hazzōn to the ninth; Duden and Grimm’s DWB group the ēn and ōn forms in the history of German hassen. Corpus-wide research independently shows that some Old High German class-III ēn verbs also occur with class-II ōn forms, but the accessible abstract does not establish that hazzōn is one of its twenty repeatedly attested double forms. DWB reports haʒôn aligned with Latin aemulari and the forms hatamas and hatent with insequamur and insequuntur. Those reports support an action range involving following or hostile pursuit; they are not directly inspected manuscript tokens. Pokorny’s account, as transmitted by Starling, explicitly warns that the Germanic evidence does not prove “pursue” was the root’s basic meaning. The route therefore distinguishes the normalized headword, the combined historical variants, the reconstructed Germanic weak verb and noun family, the qualified Indo-European comparison, and the point where knowledge ends.
OPEN THE FULL LINEAGE ↗0212
ATTESTED / RECONSTRUCTED / BOUNDARY
HISTORICAL FORMS
*
Proto-Germanic / Indo-European
*xatēnan ~ *xatōjanan
reconstructed class-III or related weak verbs meaning hate
- DATE
- Proto-Germanic reconstruction alternatives
- MATCH
- gloss
- DOSSIERS
- 6
Classical Arabic / Afro-Asiatic
Khwārizm
Khwārizm, a region south of the Aral Sea
- DATE
- early medieval and older geographic record
- MATCH
- language
- DOSSIERS
- 2
Present-Day English / Indo-European
adverb
a word class modifying verbs, adjectives, adverbs, phrases, clauses, or sentences
- DATE
- 15th century–today
- MATCH
- gloss
- DOSSIERS
- 1
Classical Arabic / Afro-Asiatic
al-Khwārizmī
the Khwārizmian; name of Muḥammad ibn Mūsā al-Khwārizmī
- DATE
- 9th century
- MATCH
- language
- DOSSIERS
- 2
Classical Arabic / Afro-Asiatic
al-jabr
restoration, completion; an operation in equation solving
- DATE
- 9th century
- MATCH
- language
- DOSSIERS
- 1
Classical Arabic / Afro-Asiatic
al-šaṭranj
chess
- DATE
- early Islamic Arabic
- MATCH
- language
- DOSSIERS
- 0
Classical Arabic / Afro-Asiatic
jabara
to restore, reunite, set or mend
- DATE
- Classical Arabic
- MATCH
- language
- DOSSIERS
- 1
Present-Day English / Indo-European
kind
a nature or class; goods rather than money; natural, fitting, or benevolent
- DATE
- before the 12th century–today
- MATCH
- gloss
- DOSSIERS
- 1
Middle English / Indo-European
kīnde
essential nature, origin, family, species, class, sex, manner, or the created order
- DATE
- Middle English
- MATCH
- gloss
- DOSSIERS
- 1
Classical Arabic / Afro-Asiatic
māt
checkmated; alternatively interpreted as “has died”
- DATE
- Arabic chess vocabulary
- MATCH
- language
- DOSSIERS
- 1
Present-Day English / Indo-European
salt
sodium chloride; saline substance; later figurative savor and scientific chemical class
- DATE
- Old English continuation–today
- MATCH
- gloss
- DOSSIERS
- 1
isiZulu / Niger-Congo
ubu-
abstract-noun class prefix
- DATE
- Modern isiZulu
- MATCH
- gloss
- DOSSIERS
- 0
0318
WHERE INTERPRETATION IS TESTED
CLAIMS & DISPUTES
SCHOLARLY DISPUTES / 12
openprobableposition text
Was every Old English frēond token still a productive participle?
Not demonstrably. OED classifies the word as a strong masculine nd-agent noun, and Bosworth–Toller labels the headword a masculine noun even while preserving its participial history.
openprobableposition text
Is the Proto-Germanic parent exactly *xatēnan ~ *xatōjanan?
The comparative verb family is secure, but its notation and subclass are not singular. Orel prints the alternatives; Merriam-Webster foregrounds *hatōjan- for the related inherited verb formation.
openprobableposition text
Is the Proto-Germanic parent exactly *xatēnan ~ *xatōjanan?
The inherited verb family is secure enough for comparison, but reconstruction notation and the relationship among class-III and related weak formations vary.
openprobableposition text
Are hatan and hatjan two Gothic verbs or one fluctuating paradigm?
The sources preserve different analytical levels. Project Wulfila gives separate class-III and class-I lemmas; Orel publishes distinct comparative formations. Braune says hatan fluctuates with class-I hatjan, while Sturtevant proposes a specifically Gothic secondary explanation.
openprobableposition text
How does hatizōn relate to Gothic hatjan and hatan?
The reviewed sources distinguish class-II hatizōn, class-I hatjan, and class-III hatan. Hatis clearly supports two denominatives, while the precise historical relationship among all three verb systems remains disputed.
openprobableposition text
Are hatjan and hatan two Gothic verbs or one fluctuating paradigm?
The located scholarship does not collapse to one answer. Project Wulfila gives separate class-I and class-III lemmas; Orel publishes distinct Germanic formations. Braune says hatan fluctuates between class III and class I, and Wright lists both under the same gloss.
openprobableposition text
Is hazzōn straightforwardly one class-II verb?
The ōn citation form has class-II morphology, but the historical record also preserves ēn forms associated with class III. Corpus-wide scholarship treats such double forms as a real Old High German problem rather than a typographic nuisance.
openprobableposition text
Is the Proto-Germanic parent exactly *xatēnan ~ *xatōjanan?
The comparative verb family is secure, but its notation and subclass are not singular. Orel prints *xatēnan ~ *xatōjanan, while Starling prints *xatōn-, -ēn- beside other related formations.
openprobableposition text
Is there one uncontested inherited stem-class analysis for the wider noun?
No. Fulk compares Old Saxon heti and Old English hete as i-stems and says Gothic hatis transferred to the a-stems; Pfeifer calls the wider noun an old es/os-stem.
openprobableposition text
Is *hatiz- the one exact spoken Proto-Germanic parent?
It is the atlas's reviewed cross-source representation, not a recording. Köbler prints *hati-, *hatiz, Koch gives *hataz ~ *hatiz-, and Pfeifer's stem-class description differs.
openproposedposition text
Does the reduplicated form make *set-u- certain?
No. ἐτήτυμος is attested, but the *setu-mo- and *set-u- stages beneath ἔτυμος remain reconstructed and disputed.
resolvedestablishedposition text
Does -logy simply mean “the study of”?
No. Merriam-Webster gives oral or written expression as one sense and doctrine, theory, or science as another; American Heritage separately gives discourse or expression and science, theory, or study. “Study of” is a useful reading in many formations, not a universal historical definition.
CONTRARIAN TRUTHS / 6
RANK 29GRADE Aranked reveal
One Gothic hate verb survives once—in a command to do good to those who hate you.
Project Wulfila’s only verified hatjan token is hatjandam in Matthew 5:44, directly visible on Codex Argenteus folio 3v. A parallel “love your enemies” command in Luke 6:27 instead uses hatandans from class-III hatan. The translation gloss “hate” therefore hides a genuine grammatical and historical dispute.
RANK 31GRADE Aranked reveal
Gothic’s two hate verbs trade places across two passages.
The complete surviving hatan corpus contains only hatandane in Luke 1:71 and hatandans in Luke 6:27. In Luke 1, fijandam supplies enemies while hatandane supplies those hating; in Luke 6, hatandans supplies enemies while fijandam supplies those hating. Both Codex Argenteus pages are directly inspected. The lexical swap—and the class-III versus class-I dispute—cannot be represented by one timeless translation arrow.
RANK 42GRADE Aranked reveal
The ordinary Old Norse enemy outlived the finite hate verb behind it.
ONP classifies fjá as poetic and exposes no prose citations. Cleasby, Fritzner, and Lexicon Poeticum converge on three Eddic contexts, while normalized texts preserve active fjá, finite fíár, and reflexive fiásk. Cleasby then points to fjándi as the participial relative that remained across Germanic. ONP gives that separate enemy noun 222 prose citations and a large semantic range. The two corpus totals are not directly frequency-comparable, and neither proves an exact extinction event; together they reveal the asymmetry between a tiny finite-verb record and the prolific lexicalized enemy branch.
RANK 45GRADE Aranked reveal
One Gothic anger verb survives in one question—and not in its dictionary form.
Project Wulfila’s complete current inventory contains one hatizōn token: hatizoþ in John 7:23, “are you angry at me?” Codex Argenteus folio 94v directly preserves the inflection. The manuscript never writes the normalized infinitive or its editorial macron. Grammar then reveals another layer: hatizōn is a class-II verb built from the consonantal stem hatiz- of hatis “hatred” or “wrath.” One English gloss therefore hides a noun-to-verb formation, one surviving grammatical person, and a sharp boundary between pixels and reconstruction.
RANK 47GRADE Aranked reveal
The Old Dutch enemy noun outlived the hate verb that created it.
ONW counts twenty-six fīunt occurrences across six attested case-number cells, yet classifies the noun as synchronically unsegmented and says the corresponding hate verb is no longer known in Dutch. Comparative evidence reconstructs the noun as an old present-participial formation: the hating one. The grammar therefore preserves a fossil in nominative, genitive, dative, and accusative records after Dutch lost the living verb that once made the formation transparent. Six cells are evidence, not a complete paradigm; the early Psalms records survive in later copies; and the lone Devil gloss is disputed.
RANK 98GRADE Aranked reveal
The ad- in adverb is not add.
Latin adverbium joins directional ad- with verbum “word” and translates Greek epirrhema. The modern class can modify far more than verbs.
0412
BOOKS / DICTIONARIES / ARTICLES / DATABASES
SOURCES
lexical database13 CLAIM LINKS
Logeion: λόγος
Classics Department Editors
author or editorAUDIT EVERY USE ↗lexical database10 CLAIM LINKS
Logeion: ἐτυμολογία
Classics Department Editors
author or editorAUDIT EVERY USE ↗lexical database8 CLAIM LINKS
Logeion: candeo
Classics Department Editors
author or editorAUDIT EVERY USE ↗lexical database7 CLAIM LINKS
Logeion: legō / legere
Classics Department Editors
author or editorAUDIT EVERY USE ↗research database6 CLAIM LINKS
Lemma hatizon — class-II Gothic verb and one-occurrence inventory
Project Wulfila editors · Wilhelm Streitberg / 2026
source titleAUDIT EVERY USE ↗lexical database5 CLAIM LINKS
Logeion: intellegō
Classics Department Editors
author or editorAUDIT EVERY USE ↗lexical database5 CLAIM LINKS
Logeion: lex
Classics Department Editors
author or editorAUDIT EVERY USE ↗lexical database4 CLAIM LINKS
Logeion: astrum
Classics Department Editors
author or editorAUDIT EVERY USE ↗lexical database4 CLAIM LINKS
Logeion: candidus
Classics Department Editors
author or editorAUDIT EVERY USE ↗lexical database4 CLAIM LINKS
Logeion: sincerus
Classics Department Editors
author or editorAUDIT EVERY USE ↗scholarly reference4 CLAIM LINKS
Masks
The Oxford Classical Dictionary Editors / 2026
author or editorAUDIT EVERY USE ↗lexical database3 CLAIM LINKS
Logeion: colligō
Classics Department Editors
author or editorAUDIT EVERY USE ↗050
FIRST USES & HISTORICAL OBJECTS
ATTESTATION WITNESSES
No reviewed record in this collection contains “class.” Absence describes this graph, not all of linguistic scholarship.
06
SEARCH IS DISCOVERY, NOT PROOF
EVERY RESULT OPENS A PERMANENT EVIDENCE RECORD.
Matching text only locates a record. It does not raise confidence, settle a dispute, establish cognacy, or turn a source report into direct inspection. Follow the result into its citations and editorial limits.