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WIKTIONARY VIA KAIKKI / WIKTEXTRACT

Imported dictionary evidence

SOURCE-IMPORTED · UNREVIEWED

These are source reports, not reviewed *SET-U ancestry. A list of templates or numbered etymologies is not an ancestor chain. Scholarly disagreements remain in the original source text.

35,981 English word records · 45,491 etymology sections in this online subset

PARTIAL ENGLISH COVERAGE · FULL CORPUS REMAINS LOCAL

3 source sections across 2 headwords matching “Worth”. These are separate from the reviewed results below.

Open the permanent entry for Worth →Open the permanent entry for worth →
WorthEnglish (en) · Unnumbered etymologySource text

From Old English worþ (“enclosure”)

Original Wiktionary entry and references ↗
worthEnglish (en) · Etymology 1Source text

From Middle English worth, from Old English weorþ, from Proto-West Germanic *werþ, from Proto-Germanic *werþaz (“worthy, valuable”); from Proto-Indo-European *wert-. Cognate with Scots wirth (“worth”), Cimbrian bèart (“worth, value”), Dutch waard, weerd (“worth”), German wert (“worth”) (the source of Polish wart (“worth”), Ukrainian вартість (vartistʹ, “worth, value”), etc), Luxembourgish wäert (“worth”), Yiddish ווערט (vert), ווערד (verd, “worth, value”), Danish værd (“worth”), Faroese and Icelandic verður (“worth”), Norwegian Bokmål verdt (“worth”), Norwegian Nynorsk verd (“worth”), Swedish värd (“worth”), Gothic 𐍅𐌰𐌹𐍂𐌸 (wairþ, “worth, value”), Welsh gwerth (“worth, value”).

Original Wiktionary entry and references ↗
worthEnglish (en) · Etymology 2Source text

From Middle English worthen, wurthen, werthen (“to be; exist; come into being; come into existence”), from Old English weorþan (“to come into being; be made; become; arise; be”), from Proto-West Germanic *werþan, from Proto-Germanic *werþaną (“to come about; happen; come into being; become”), from Proto-Indo-European *wert- (“to turn; turn out”). Cognate with Dutch worden, dated Low German warrn, German werden, Old Norse verða (Norwegian verta, Swedish varda), Latin vertere.

Original Wiktionary entry and references ↗

From Wiktionary contributors; extracted by Tatu Ylonen / Wiktextract / Kaikki.org. Extraction source · CC-BY-SA-4.0. Selected source text is reformatted for display; language and section identity are retained.

Source dump: 2026-10-01 · Extraction: 2026-10-30. These dates identify a dump snapshot, not an individual page revision.

Snapshot checksums and coverage
SOURCE SHA-256
5ff2c072f8099f2d2ce484bd6957bf179f046d2ad37bc36555edf8bb84cb5291
CORPUS SHA-256
c4c2a77325141846709230e11c2959332acd630d53e52905b72d36211251b081
IMPORT RUN
73216b9a9b78ed3830994bf853103716f5a4dc57099e371e9f8fdc468facca26
SUBSET SELECTION
English-only: shortest normalized query first, then binary lexical order; complete word-language and case-variant groups only. This is a bounded online subset, not the full acquired corpus.

INDEPENDENT SOURCE LIBRARY

More sources for this spelling

These are spelling matches, not a claim of identical senses or agreement. Historical accounts retain their own editions and limits; none is automatically promoted into reviewed ancestry.

Browse the independently attributed sources →
55REVIEWED RESULTS
11WORD DOSSIERS
3HISTORICAL NODES
12SOURCES
17CLAIMS
12WITNESSES
01

MODERN ENTRY POINTS

WORD DOSSIERS

11
verbhistorical form

betroth

To promise in marriage; a Middle English prefixed formation built on the same historical noun that yielded truth and troth.

OPEN THE FULL LINEAGE ↗
nounhistorical form

dime

The United States ten-cent coin, named with an older English and French word for a tenth part or tithe.

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English common noun and historical adjectivedossier summary

friend

English friend continues Middle English frẹ̄nd and Old English frēond, an inherited Germanic nd-stem agent noun. OED identifies cognates across West, East, and North Germanic and analyzes them as noun uses of a present participle of the Germanic base behind free; Bosworth–Toller explicitly calls Old English freónd the participle of freón, a verb meaning free or love; American Heritage independently explains the formation as originally one who loves. The historical noun later covers intimate companion, ally, supporter, relation, lover, form of address, Quaker, climbing device, and social-network contact. The graph displays a normalized *frijōnd- participial formation, Germanic *frī-, the proposed Indo-European comparison *prī-, and then stops.

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Old English strong masculine nd-stem noundossier summary

frēond

Old English frēond is the directly attested source-language noun behind modern friend. OED analyzes it as an inherited strong masculine agent noun in -nd, ultimately a noun use of the present participle of the Germanic base behind free, and documents West Saxon frēond, Northumbrian and Kentish frīond, Kentish frīand, mutated frīend and frȳnd, endingless plurals, and re-formed frēondas. Bosworth–Toller prints freónd and friónd, explicitly links freónde loving to freón or freógan, and supplies examples for companion, ally, relation, friend of God, friend versus foe, and friends acting as arbitrators. OED independently preserves close companion, non-enemy, ally, and kinsman senses in Old English. Cotton MS Vitellius A XV folio 152r was directly inspected at Beowulf 1018, where the pixels visibly preserve freondum in Heorot innan wæs freondum afylled. The route reuses the reviewed *frijōnd-, *frī-, and proposed *prī- nodes and then stops. The displayed pronunciation is a normalized approximation, not a recorded voice.

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Old English verbdossier summary

fēogan

An Old English verb meaning hate or persecute, recorded as FEÓGAN, feógean, fiógan, contracted feón and fión, with participle feógende and a broad present-and-past paradigm. Bosworth–Toller supplies examples whose objects include crimes, evil ways, law, peace, a temple, friends, and people. The verb continues reconstructed Proto-Germanic *fi(j)ēn-. Its active-participial formation lexicalized prehistorically as the enemy noun behind Old English fēond and modern fiend, but the verb, participle, and noun are not one interchangeable category.

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Old English strong masculine nd-agent noundossier summary

fēond

An Old English enemy, foe, and Devil noun inherited from the Germanic lexicalized present-participial formation *fi(j)and-. OED’s revised 2026 entry treats fēond and fīond as dialectal Old English forms, documents i-mutated fīend and fȳnd inside the inherited nd-stem inflection, and traces the word through a highly variable Middle English record into modern fiend. Bosworth–Toller supplies the Old English paradigm and examples; the Middle English Dictionary independently reports 188 quotations across eight senses. Cotton MS Vitellius A XV folio 180v was directly inspected at Beowulf 2289, where feondes modifies fotlast, the foe’s footprint.

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Old English weak-verb lemmadossier summary

hettan

An Old English weak-verb lemma supported by a strikingly narrow surface record. A full-corpus lemmatisation inventory lists only hettende under hettan; Bosworth–Toller redirects the bare headword to hettend, “enemy,” while Orel compares the verb with Gothic hatjan and Middle High German hetzen. Clark Hall instead assigns hettende to hatian. The dossier therefore separates the comparative verb, the recorded enemy word, and the unresolved lemma assignment.

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nounhistorical form

troth

Pledged fidelity, good faith, or betrothal; a surviving historical twin of truth rather than a later poetic fabrication.

OPEN THE FULL LINEAGE ↗
adjectivecontrarian claim

true

In accord with fact, reality, or a standard; historically an inherited word whose older center is firmness, faithfulness, and steadfastness.

OPEN THE FULL LINEAGE ↗
nounhistorical form

trust

Assured reliance, confidence, or responsibility; probably entering Middle English from Scandinavian material meaning confidence and firmness.

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nounhistorical form

truth

Conformity with fact or reality; inherited through Old English trēowþ, whose recorded semantic field includes fidelity, loyalty, and constancy.

OPEN THE FULL LINEAGE ↗
02

ATTESTED / RECONSTRUCTED / BOUNDARY

HISTORICAL FORMS

3
03

WHERE INTERPRETATION IS TESTED

CLAIMS & DISPUTES

17

SCHOLARLY DISPUTES / 12

openprobableposition text

Was every Old English frēond token still a productive participle?

Not demonstrably. OED classifies the word as a strong masculine nd-agent noun, and Bosworth–Toller labels the headword a masculine noun even while preserving its participial history.

openprobableposition text

Is fēogan a strong verb or a weak contracted verb?

Bosworth–Toller labels the full FEÓGAN entry strong, but labels linked contracted feón weak and contracted. The displayed past forms in -de also require grammatical explanation. The dossier preserves the source-level tension rather than silently harmonizing it.

openprobableposition text

Is hettende a verbal participle or a lexical noun meaning enemy?

The evidence supports both analyses in different editorial systems. Tío Sáenz lemmatizes hettende under hettan; Clark Hall calls it a participle of hatian; Bosworth–Toller lists hettende among the forms of the masculine noun hettend, “enemy.”

openprobableposition text

Are hettan and hatian the same Old English verb?

Probably not historically, but the surviving forms are easy to merge. Orel assigns hettan to *xatjanan and hatian to a separate *xatēnan ~ *xatōjanan formation; Clark Hall nevertheless sends hettende to hatian, and Bosworth–Toller cross-refers hettan to hatian.

resolvedestablishedposition text

Is bride the same historical word as bird?

No. Bosworth-Toller records brȳd, bride or spouse, separately from brid, the young of a bird; the reviewed bride path follows brȳd.

resolvedestablishedposition text

Was friend historically an agent noun meaning one who loves?

Yes at the word-formation level. OED, Bosworth–Toller, and American Heritage independently identify a present-participial formation on the love or favor base.

resolvedestablishedposition text

Are friend and free historically related?

Yes. OED places friend on the Germanic base of free, Bosworth–Toller glosses freón as free or love, and American Heritage traces both through Germanic *frī-.

resolvedestablishedposition text

Was frēond historically a loving-agent formation?

Yes at the comparative word-formation level. OED identifies a noun use of the Germanic present participle, Bosworth–Toller calls freónde loving the participle of freón, and American Heritage independently gives one who loves.

resolvedestablishedposition text

Did Old English frēond mean only a close private companion?

No. OED separates close acquaintance, non-enemy or ally, and relation senses already in Old English; Bosworth–Toller adds patronal, religious, and arbitration contexts.

resolvedestablishedposition text

Was the relation or kinsman sense absent from Old English?

No. OED cites the Rushworth Gospels and Laws of Cnut under close relation or kinsman. The sense later becomes regionally restricted in English but is attested in Old English.

resolvedestablishedposition text

Are frēond and fēond cognates because Old English pairs them?

No. OED calls fiend an antonym with a similar formation, while the reviewed graph traces the nouns to different love and hate bases. Bosworth–Toller’s pair is rhetorical evidence, not genealogy.

resolvedestablishedposition text

Are fēogan and feón separate hate verbs?

No secure split is modeled. Bosworth–Toller links feón directly as a similar entry and the full paradigm lists feón among fēogan’s contracted variants.

CONTRARIAN TRUTHS / 5

RANK 26GRADE Aranked reveal

Old English hated vices and deeds as well as people.

Bosworth–Toller’s Pastoral Care examples make conduct grammatical: rulers hate their subjects’ vices, and the text distinguishes loving what enemies are from hating what they do. The historical verb therefore records directed moral and hostile judgment, not only an inward emotion label.

RANK 27GRADE Aranked reveal

The Old English verb survives most visibly as an enemy.

The located weak-verb corpus inventory gives hettan only one form: hettende. Bosworth–Toller records that surface family repeatedly under hettend, “enemy” or “antagonist,” including Genesis and the Phoenix. The verb is therefore not a neat recovered paradigm; it is a lemma inferred at the edge between action, agent, and lexicalized foe.

RANK 52GRADE Aranked reveal

Friend and fiend are grammatical twins—but not cognates.

OED analyzes friend as a noun use of the present participle behind the Germanic free and love family, and it explicitly calls fiend a similar formation. Bosworth–Toller makes the Old English structure visible: freónd is the loving participle of freón, to free or love. The enemy word follows a different hate verb. The real unveiling is structural: one inherited agent noun is the loving one, the other the hating one or enemy, and parallel grammar must not be mistaken for one root splitting into moral opposites.

RANK 56GRADE Aranked reveal

The Old English friend was a loving-agent noun—but not merely a modern intimate.

OED and Bosworth–Toller preserve the morphology behind frēond: an inherited nd-stem formation tied to the verb meaning free or love. The same sources then refuse a slogan-sized definition. Old English uses cover close companion, ally or non-enemy, relation, friend of God, friend versus foe, and friends acting as arbitrators. Cotton MS Vitellius A XV folio 152r visibly preserves freondum in a hall filled with favored people at Beowulf 1018. The unveiling is not that friend secretly means love in every sentence; it is that a loving-agent fossil became a socially versatile noun before modern English existed.

RANK 136GRADE Aranked reveal

Old English turned hate into people-hate, murder-hate, weapon-hate, and war-hate.

Bosworth–Toller lists leód-, morþor-, wǽpen-, and wíg-hete among eleven derived formations. Clark Hall adds hostile speech, a hostile blow, a hostile design, and a charm for producing hate. The noun was a word-building base, not merely a private feeling label.

04

BOOKS / DICTIONARIES / ARTICLES / DATABASES

SOURCES

12
historical dictionary35 CLAIM LINKS

Bosworth–Toller Anglo-Saxon Dictionary — FEÓGAN

Joseph Bosworth · Thomas Northcote Toller · Christ Sean · Ondřej Tichý / 2014

author or editorAUDIT EVERY USE ↗
historical dictionary26 CLAIM LINKS

An Anglo-Saxon Dictionary Online — feónd

Joseph Bosworth · Thomas Northcote Toller · Christ Sean · Ondřej Tichy / 2014

author or editorAUDIT EVERY USE ↗
historical dictionary19 CLAIM LINKS

An Anglo-Saxon Dictionary Online — freónd

Joseph Bosworth · Thomas Northcote Toller · Christ Sean · Ondřej Tichy / 2014

author or editorAUDIT EVERY USE ↗
historical dictionary13 CLAIM LINKS

HETTAN; HETTEND — An Anglo-Saxon Dictionary, Dictionary H

Joseph Bosworth · Thomas Northcote Toller · Jonathan Slocum / 1898

author or editorAUDIT EVERY USE ↗
historical dictionary12 CLAIM LINKS

HATIAN — An Anglo-Saxon Dictionary, Dictionary H

Joseph Bosworth · Thomas Northcote Toller · Jonathan Slocum / 1898

author or editorAUDIT EVERY USE ↗
historical dictionary12 CLAIM LINKS

HETE — An Anglo-Saxon Dictionary Online

Joseph Bosworth · Thomas Northcote Toller · Christ Sean · Ondřej Tichý / 2014

author or editorAUDIT EVERY USE ↗
historical dictionary7 CLAIM LINKS

Bosworth–Toller Anglo-Saxon Dictionary — feón, to hate

Joseph Bosworth · Thomas Northcote Toller · Christ Sean · Ondřej Tichý / 2014

author or editorAUDIT EVERY USE ↗
historical dictionary6 CLAIM LINKS

An Anglo-Saxon Dictionary Online — freón

Joseph Bosworth · Thomas Northcote Toller · Christ Sean · Ondřej Tichy / 2014

author or editorAUDIT EVERY USE ↗
historical dictionary5 CLAIM LINKS

BRÝD — An Anglo-Saxon Dictionary Online

Joseph Bosworth, Thomas Northcote Toller, Christ Sean, and Ondřej Tichý / 2014

author or editorAUDIT EVERY USE ↗
historical dictionary4 CLAIM LINKS

Ge-cynde — Bosworth–Toller Anglo-Saxon Dictionary

Joseph Bosworth · T. Northcote Toller · online editors / 1898

author or editorAUDIT EVERY USE ↗
historical dictionary3 CLAIM LINKS

Bosworth–Toller: lufu

Bosworth & Toller

author or editorAUDIT EVERY USE ↗
historical dictionary3 CLAIM LINKS

Cyn, cynn — Bosworth–Toller Anglo-Saxon Dictionary

Joseph Bosworth · T. Northcote Toller · online editors / 1898

author or editorAUDIT EVERY USE ↗
05

FIRST USES & HISTORICAL OBJECTS

ATTESTATION WITNESSES

12
SOURCE REPORTEDlexical corpus record

Old English lexical record

lufu / love / Old English period

Bosworth–Toller: lufureporting source / OPEN RECORD ↗
SOURCE REPORTEDlexical corpus record

Old English lexical record

cliewen / clue / Old English period

Bosworth–Toller: cliewenreporting source / OPEN RECORD ↗
SOURCE REPORTEDlexical corpus record

Resignation of the World, hating crimes

fēogan / fēogan / Old English, source-reported

Bosworth–Toller Anglo-Saxon Dictionary — FEÓGANreporting source / OPEN RECORD ↗
SOURCE REPORTEDlexical corpus record

Psalm, hands of haters

fēogan / fēogan / Old English, source-reported

Bosworth–Toller Anglo-Saxon Dictionary — FEÓGANreporting source / OPEN RECORD ↗
SOURCE REPORTEDlexical corpus record

Psalm, hating unjust ways

fēogan / fēogan / Old English, source-reported

Bosworth–Toller Anglo-Saxon Dictionary — FEÓGANreporting source / OPEN RECORD ↗
SOURCE REPORTEDlexical corpus record

Elene, animals and friends

fēogan / fēogan / Old English, source-reported

Bosworth–Toller Anglo-Saxon Dictionary — FEÓGANreporting source / OPEN RECORD ↗
SOURCE REPORTEDlexical corpus record

Psalm, people who hate without cause

fēogan / fēogan / Old English, source-reported

Bosworth–Toller Anglo-Saxon Dictionary — FEÓGANreporting source / OPEN RECORD ↗
SOURCE REPORTEDlexical corpus record

Psalm, hating workers of deceit

fēogan / fēogan / Old English, source-reported

Bosworth–Toller Anglo-Saxon Dictionary — FEÓGANreporting source / OPEN RECORD ↗
SOURCE REPORTEDlexical corpus record

Juliana and Elene, hating the Lord’s law

fēogan / fēogan / Old English, source-reported

Bosworth–Toller Anglo-Saxon Dictionary — FEÓGANreporting source / OPEN RECORD ↗
SOURCE REPORTEDlexical corpus record

Psalm, those who hate peace

fēogan / fēogan / Old English, source-reported

Bosworth–Toller Anglo-Saxon Dictionary — FEÓGANreporting source / OPEN RECORD ↗
SOURCE REPORTEDlexical corpus record

Christ, hating God’s temple

fēogan / fēogan / Old English, source-reported

Bosworth–Toller Anglo-Saxon Dictionary — FEÓGANreporting source / OPEN RECORD ↗
SOURCE REPORTEDlexical corpus record

Psalm, imperative to hate evil

fēogan / fēogan / Old English, source-reported

Bosworth–Toller Anglo-Saxon Dictionary — FEÓGANreporting source / OPEN RECORD ↗
06

SEARCH IS DISCOVERY, NOT PROOF

EVERY RESULT OPENS A PERMANENT EVIDENCE RECORD.

Matching text only locates a record. It does not raise confidence, settle a dispute, establish cognacy, or turn a source report into direct inspection. Follow the result into its citations and editorial limits.