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WIKTIONARY VIA KAIKKI / WIKTEXTRACT
Imported dictionary evidence
These are source reports, not reviewed *SET-U ancestry. A list of templates or numbered etymologies is not an ancestor chain. Scholarly disagreements remain in the original source text.
35,981 English word records · 45,491 etymology sections in this online subset
PARTIAL ENGLISH COVERAGE · FULL CORPUS REMAINS LOCAL1 source section across 1 headword matching “dum”. These are separate from the reviewed results below.
dumEnglish (en) · Etymology 1Source text
From Hindi दम (dam).
Original Wiktionary entry and references ↗INDEPENDENT SOURCE LIBRARY
More sources for this spelling
These are spelling matches, not a claim of identical senses or agreement. Historical accounts retain their own editions and limits; none is automatically promoted into reviewed ancestry.
Lewis’s Elementary Latin Dictionary
1890 American Book Company edition; pinned Perseus XML digitization- dumLatin · n4983
dum adv. of time, the while, a while, now, yet .—Only as enclitic; see etiamdum, nondum, nihildum, etc.—With imper. (colloq.): Sosia Adesdum, paucis te volo, stop a moment, T.: abidum, T.: facitodum, T.: age dum, T.: age
Read the full source record → - dumLatin · n4984
dum conj. Source etymology: 1 dum , while, whilst, at the time that, during the time in which, where : dum conantur, annus est, T.: dum de his disputo iudiciis: dum ea conquiruntur, ad Rhenum contenderunt, Cs.: Haec cane
Read the full source record →
012
MODERN ENTRY POINTS
WORD DOSSIERS
onomastic compound elementdossier summary
-rīx
An attested Gaulish second member meaning “king” or “prince,” visible in compound personal names such as Dumnorix and Vercingetorix and inherited from Proto-Celtic *rīx-s.
OPEN THE FULL LINEAGE ↗Old English strong masculine nd-stem noundossier summary
frēond
Old English frēond is the directly attested source-language noun behind modern friend. OED analyzes it as an inherited strong masculine agent noun in -nd, ultimately a noun use of the present participle of the Germanic base behind free, and documents West Saxon frēond, Northumbrian and Kentish frīond, Kentish frīand, mutated frīend and frȳnd, endingless plurals, and re-formed frēondas. Bosworth–Toller prints freónd and friónd, explicitly links freónde loving to freón or freógan, and supplies examples for companion, ally, relation, friend of God, friend versus foe, and friends acting as arbitrators. OED independently preserves close companion, non-enemy, ally, and kinsman senses in Old English. Cotton MS Vitellius A XV folio 152r was directly inspected at Beowulf 1018, where the pixels visibly preserve freondum in Heorot innan wæs freondum afylled. The route reuses the reviewed *frijōnd-, *frī-, and proposed *prī- nodes and then stops. The displayed pronunciation is a normalized approximation, not a recorded voice.
OPEN THE FULL LINEAGE ↗020
ATTESTED / RECONSTRUCTED / BOUNDARY
HISTORICAL FORMS
No reviewed record in this collection contains “dum.” Absence describes this graph, not all of linguistic scholarship.
035
WHERE INTERPRETATION IS TESTED
CLAIMS & DISPUTES
SCHOLARLY DISPUTES / 3
openprobableposition text
Does freondum at Beowulf 1018 identify every person as a modern intimate friend?
No. The local text says Heorot was filled with freondum, but the manuscript alone does not recover each referent’s exact social relationship or a modern intimacy category.
resolvedestablishedposition text
Is the Groningen fiundum record straightforward Old Dutch evidence?
No. ONW displays it but explicitly says the Groningen psalm glosses are counted as Old Frisian.
resolvedestablishedposition text
Do all printed spellings represent separate lexemes?
No. ONW groups fiunt, dfiunt, fiundis, fiundes, fiunda, uiande, uiende, fiundo, fiundun, fiundum, uiandan, and viannden inside one lemma and inflection table, while flagging individual readings.
CONTRARIAN TRUTHS / 2
RANK 18GRADE Aranked reveal
The famous Gaulish ending is -rīx, not decorative -ix.
Cambridge identifies Gaulish -rix /-rīxs/ “king” inside Dumnorix and Vercingetorix and derives it from Proto-Celtic *rīx-s. The r belongs to the historical element; the exact force of that element still varies across individual names.
RANK 56GRADE Aranked reveal
The Old English friend was a loving-agent noun—but not merely a modern intimate.
OED and Bosworth–Toller preserve the morphology behind frēond: an inherited nd-stem formation tied to the verb meaning free or love. The same sources then refuse a slogan-sized definition. Old English uses cover close companion, ally or non-enemy, relation, friend of God, friend versus foe, and friends acting as arbitrators. Cotton MS Vitellius A XV folio 152r visibly preserves freondum in a hall filled with favored people at Beowulf 1018. The unveiling is not that friend secretly means love in every sentence; it is that a loving-agent fossil became a socially versatile noun before modern English existed.
040
BOOKS / DICTIONARIES / ARTICLES / DATABASES
SOURCES
No reviewed record in this collection contains “dum.” Absence describes this graph, not all of linguistic scholarship.
059
FIRST USES & HISTORICAL OBJECTS
ATTESTATION WITNESSES
SOURCE REPORTEDlexical corpus record
Dumnorix in Caesar’s De Bello Gallico
-rīx / -rīx / first-century BCE work, inspected through a 1914 digital edition
De Bello Gallico — Latin edition in the Scaife Viewerwitness-title prefix / OPEN RECORD ↗DIRECTLY INSPECTEDmanuscript
Beowulf manuscript, Heorot filled with friends
frēond / frēond / late 10th or early 11th century
Cotton MS Vitellius A XV, folio 152r — Electronic Beowulf facsimilewitness excerpt / OPEN RECORD ↗SOURCE REPORTEDlexical corpus record
Egill, Sonatorrek 24
fjándi / fjándi / poetic composition dated 960 by source; dating requires checking
Lexicon Poeticum — fjándi, noun masculine, enemy or devilwitness excerpt / OPEN RECORD ↗SOURCE REPORTEDlexical corpus record
Skriptamál Ólafar Loftsdóttur
hata / hata / document dated 1479; surviving JS 308 copy c1750
ONP citation — hata in Diplomatarium Islandicum VI 242witness excerpt / OPEN RECORD ↗SOURCE REPORTEDlexical corpus
Electronic Beowulf critical edition report of hatian
hatian / hate / Beowulf line 2466
Electronic Beowulf, Fifth Editionwitness excerpt / OPEN RECORD ↗SOURCE REPORTEDlexical corpus
Electronic Beowulf critical-edition report of hatian
hatian / hatian / Beowulf line 2466
Electronic Beowulf, Fifth Editionwitness excerpt / OPEN RECORD ↗SOURCE REPORTEDlexical corpus record
Groningen psalm glosses
fīunt / fīunt / 1151–1175; language assignment boundary
Oudnederlands Woordenboek — fīuntwitness excerpt / OPEN RECORD ↗SOURCE REPORTEDlexical corpus record
Beowulf, Heorot filled with friends
frēond / friend / Old English, source-reported
Oxford English Dictionary — friend, n. & adj.witness excerpt / OPEN RECORD ↗SOURCE REPORTEDlexical corpus record
Rushworth Gospels, relatives rise against one another
frēond / frēond / Old English, source-reported
Oxford English Dictionary — friend, n. & adj.witness excerpt / OPEN RECORD ↗06
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